Chapter 1
Chapter 1: The Chemical World
1.1: The Scope of Chemistry
1.2: Chemicals Compose Ordinary Things
1.3: Hypothesis, Theories, and Laws
1.4: The Scientific Method: How Chemists Think
1.5: A Beginning Chemist: How to Succeed
• Chapter 2
Chapter 2: Measurement and Problem Solving
2.1: Taking Measurements
2.2: Scientific Notation: Writing Large and Small Numbers
2.3: Significant Figures: Writing Numbers to Reflect Precision
2.4: Significant Figures in Calculations
2.5: The Basic Units of Measurement
2.6: Problem Solving and Unit Conversions
2.7: Solving Multistep Conversion Problems
2.8: Units Raised to a Power
2.9: Density
2.10: Numerical Problem-Solving Strategies and the Solution Map
2.E: Measurement and Problem Solving (Exercises)
• Chapter 3
Chapter 3: Matter and Energy
3.1: In Your Room
3.2: What is Matter?
3.3: Classifying Matter According to Its State: Solid, Liquid, and Gas
3.4: Classifying Matter According to Its Composition
3.5: Differences in Matter: Physical and Chemical Properties
3.6: Changes in Matter: Physical and Chemical Changes
3.7: Conservation of Mass: There is No New Matter
3.8: Energy
3.9: Energy and Chemical and Physical Change
3.10: Temperature: Random Motion of Molecules and Atoms
3.11: Temperature Changes: Heat Capacity
3.12: Energy and Heat Capacity Calculations
3.E: Exercises
• Chapter 4
Chapter 4: Atoms and Elements
4.1: Experiencing Atoms at Tiburon
4.2: Indivisible: The Atomic Theory
4.3: The Nuclear Atom
4.4: The Properties of Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons
4.5: Elements: Defined by Their Numbers of Protons
4.6: Looking for Patterns: The Periodic Law and the Periodic Table
4.7: Ions: Losing and Gaining Electrons
4.8: Isotopes: When the Number of Neutrons Varies
4.9: Atomic Mass: The Average Mass of an Element’s Atoms
• Chapter 5
Chapter 5: Molecules and Compounds
5.1: Sugar and Salt
5.2: Compounds Display Constant Composition
5.3: Chemical Formulas: How to Represent Compounds
5.4: A Molecular View of Elements and Compounds
5.5: Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds
5.6: Nomenclature: Naming Compounds
5.7: Naming Ionic Compounds
5.8: Naming Molecular Compounds
5.9: Naming Acids
5.10: Nomenclature Summary
5.11: Formula Mass: The Mass of a Molecule or Formula Unit
• Chapter 6
Chapter 6: Chemical Composition
6.1: How Much Sodium?
6.2: Counting Nails by the Pound
6.3: Counting Atoms by the Gram
6.4: Counting Molecules by the Gram
6.5: Chemical Formulas as Conversion Factors
6.6: Mass Percent Composition of Compounds
6.7: Mass Percent Composition from a Chemical Formula
6.8: Calculating Empirical Formulas for Compounds
6.9: Calculating Molecular Formulas for Compounds
• Chapter 7
Chapter 7: Chemical Reactions
7.1: Grade School Volcanoes, Automobiles, and Laundry Detergents
7.2: Evidence of a Chemical Reaction
7.3: The Chemical Equation
7.4: How to Write Balanced Chemical Equations
7.5: Aqueous Solutions and Solubility: Compounds Dissolved in Water
7.6: Precipitation Reactions: Reactions in Aqueous Solution That Form a Solid
7.7: Writing Chemical Equations for Reactions in Solution: Molecular, Complete Ionic, and Net Ionic Equations
7.8: Acid–Base and Gas Evolution Reactions
7.9: Oxidation–Reduction Reactions
7.10: Classifying Chemical Reactions
7.11: The Activity Series
• Chapter 8
Chapter 8: Quantities in Chemical Reactions
8.1: Climate Change: Too Much Carbon Dioxide
8.2: Stoichiometry
8.3: Making Molecules: Mole-to-Mole Conversions
8.4: Making Molecules: Mass-to-Mass Conversions
8.5: Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield
8.6: Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield from Initial Masses of Reactants
8.7: Enthalpy: A Measure of the Heat Evolved or Absorbed in a Reaction
Chapter 9
Chapter 9: Electrons in Atoms and the Periodic Table
9.1: Blimps, Balloons, and Models of the Atom
9.2: Light: Electromagnetic Radiation
9.3: The Electromagnetic Spectrum
9.4: The Bohr Model: Atoms with Orbits
9.5: The Quantum-Mechanical Model: Atoms with Orbitals
9.6: Quantum-Mechanical Orbitals and Electron Configurations
9.7: Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table
9.8: The Explanatory Power of the Quantum-Mechanical Model
9.9: Periodic Trends: Atomic Size, Ionization Energy, and Metallic Character
• Chapter 10
Chapter 10: Chemical Bonding
10.1: Bonding Models and AIDS Drugs
10.2: Representing Valence Electrons with Dots
10.3: Lewis Structures of Ionic Compounds: Electrons Transferred
10.4: Covalent Lewis Structures: Electrons Shared
10.5: Writing Lewis Structures for Covalent Compounds
10.6: Resonance: Equivalent Lewis Structures for the Same Molecule
10.7: Predicting the Shapes of Molecules
10.8: Electronegativity and Polarity: Why Oil and Water Don’t Mix
• Chapter 11
Chapter 11: Gases
11.1: Extra-Long Straws
11.2: Kinetic Molecular Theory: A Model for Gases
11.3: Pressure: The Result of Constant Molecular Collisions
11.4: Boyle’s Law: Pressure and Volume
11.5: Charles’s Law: Volume and Temperature
11.6: Gay-Lussac's Law: Temperature and Pressure
11.7: The Combined Gas Law: Pressure, Volume, and Temperature
11.8: Avogadro’s Law: Volume and Moles
11.9: The Ideal Gas Law: Pressure, Volume, Temperature, and Moles
11.10: Mixtures of Gases: Why Deep-Sea Divers Breathe a Mixture of Helium and Oxygen
11.11: Gases in Chemical Reactions
• Chapter 12
Chapter 12: Liquids, Solids, and Intermolecular Forces
12.1: Interactions between Molecules
12.2: Properties of Liquids and Solids
12.3: Intermolecular Forces in Action: Surface Tension and Viscosity
12.4: Evaporation and Condensation
12.5: Melting, Freezing, and Sublimation
12.6: Types of Intermolecular Forces: Dispersion, Dipole–Dipole, Hydrogen Bonding, and Ion-Dipole
12.7: Types of Crystalline Solids: Molecular, Ionic, and Atomic
12.8: Water: A Remarkable Molecule
• Chapter 13
Chapter 13: Solutions
13.1: Prelude - Tragedy in Cameroon
13.2: Solutions: Homogeneous Mixtures
13.3: Solutions of Solids Dissolved in Water: How to Make Rock Candy
13.4: Solutions of Gases in Water: How Soda Pop Gets Its Fizz
13.5: Solution Concentration: Mass Percent
13.6: Solution Concentration: Molarity
13.7: Solution Dilution
13.8: Solution Stoichiometry
13.9: Freezing Point Depression and Boiling Point Elevation: Making Water Freeze Colder and Boil Hotter
13.10: Osmosis: Why Drinking Salt Water Causes Dehydration
• Chapter 14
Chapter 14: Acids and Bases
14.1: Sour Patch Kids and International Spy Movies
14.2: Acids: Properties and Examples
14.3: Bases: Properties and Examples
14.4: Molecular Definitions of Acids and Bases
14.5: Reactions of Acids and Bases
14.6: Acid–Base Titration: A Way to Quantify the Amount of Acid or Base in a Solution
14.7: Strong and Weak Acids and Bases
14.8: Water: Acid and Base in One
14.9: The pH and pOH Scales: Ways to Express Acidity and Basicity
14.10: Buffers: Solutions That Resist pH Change
Skills to Develop
To convert a value reported in one unit raised to a power of 10 to a corresponding value in a different unit raised to the same power of 10 using conversion factors.
Conversion factors for area and volume can also be produced by the dimensional analysis method. Just remember that if a quantity is raised to a power of 10 both the number and the unit must be raised to the same power of 10. For example to convert \(1500 \: \text{cm}^2\) to \(\text{m}^2\), we need to start with the relationship between centimeter and meter. We know that 1 cm = 10-2 m or 100 cm =1 m, but since we are given the quantity in 1500 cm2 , then we have to use the relationship:
\[1\, cm^2 = (10^{-2}\, m)^2 = 10^{-4}\, m^2\]
CONCEPT MAP
CALCULATION
\[1500 \: \cancel{\text{cm}}^2 \times \left( \frac{10^{-2} \: \text{m}}{1 \: \cancel{\text{cm}}} \right)^2 = 0.15 \: \text{m}^2\]
or
\[1500 \: \cancel{\text{cm}}^2 \times \left( \frac{1 \: \text{m}}{100 \: \cancel{\text{cm}}} \right)^2 = 0.15 \: \text{m}^2\]
or
\[1500 \: \cancel{\text{cm}}^2 \times \frac{1 \: \text{m}^2}{10,000 \: \cancel{\text{cm}^2}} = 0.15 \: \text{m}^2\]
Example \(\PageIndex{1}\): Volume of a sphere
What is the volume of a sphere (radius 4.30 inches) in cubic cm (cm3 )?
Solution
Steps for Problem Solving
What is the volume of a sphere (radius 4.30 inches) in cubic cm (cm3 )?
Identify the "given” information and what the problem is asking you to "find."
Given: radius = 4.30 in
Find: cm3 (volume)
Determine other known quantities
Volume of a sphere: V = \(\frac{4}{3} \times \pi \times r^3 \)
= \(\frac{4}{3} \times 3.1416 \times (4.3\underline{0}in)^3 \)
= \(33\underline{3}.04 in^3\)
Prepare a concept map
Calculate
\(33\underline{3}.04 \cancel{in^3} \left(\frac{2.54cm}{1 \cancel{in}}\right)^3 = 5.46 \times10^3 cm^3\)
Think about your result
A centimeter is a smaller unit than an inch, so the answer in cubic centimeter is larger than the given value in cubic inch.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\)
Lake Tahoe has a surface area of 191 square miles. What is the area in square km (km2 )?
Answer:
495 km2