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16: Appendix

Last updated

Sep 12, 2021
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- 15.7: Chapter Summary and Key Terms
- 16.1: Normality

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16.1: Normality
Normality measures concentration based on the equivalents of a chemical species reacting stoichiometrically with another species. The number of equivalents is determined by a reaction unit, specific to the type of reaction: charge for precipitation, protons for acid-base, electron pairs for complexation, and electrons for redox reactions. Normality (N) is linked to molarity (M) through the formula $N = n \times M$ , where n represents the number of equivalents.
16.2: Propagation of Uncertainty
The text discusses the propagation of uncertainty in the context of chemical measurements, emphasizing the various sources of uncertainty beyond just measurement error, such as purity, temperature effects, and repeatability. Using the standardization of an NaOH solution via titration of KHP as an example, the text details the identification and estimation of uncertainties for different components using methods like cause-and-effect diagrams and converting tolerance ranges to standard deviations.
16.3: Single-Sided Normal Distribution
This text explains how to use a normal distribution table to find the proportion of the data under the curve that lies to the right of a specific deviation, $z$ . It illustrates how to find both right and left areas under the curve for positive and negative deviations with examples and figures.
16.4: Critical Values for t-Test
The page describes two approaches to interpreting a t-test once t_{exp} has been calculated. The first approach involves selecting an alpha value to reject the null hypothesis and comparing t_{exp} against the critical t-values from a table. If t_{exp}) is greater, the null hypothesis is rejected.
16.5: Critical Values for F-Test
The page provides guidance on using F-test tables for statistical analysis, specifically focusing on one-tailed and two-tailed F-tests. It outlines the process of calculating the experimental F value ( $F_\text{exp}$ ) using sample variances $s_A^2$ and $s_B^2$ , where $s_A^2$ is greater than $s_B^2$ . The null hypothesis is rejected if $F_\text{exp}$ is greater than the critical values specified in the tables for $F(0.05, \nu_\text{num}, \nu_\text{denom})$ .
16.6: Critical Values for Dixon's Q-Test
This page discusses Dixon's Q-test, a statistical method used to identify outliers in a data set. The focus is on Q10, a specific calculation for detecting a single outlier by comparing an outlier's deviation from its nearest data point with the total range of the sample set. If the calculated value (Qexp) exceeds a critical value depending on the significance level alpha and the sample size (n), the outlier is rejected.
16.7: Critical Values for Grubb's Test
The page provides critical values for Grubb's Test, used to identify outliers in data. It explains that the test involves calculating a value $G_{10}$ for a single suspected outlier, compared against a critical threshold $G(\alpha, n)$ . The table details these critical values for different sample sizes (n) and significance levels ( $\alpha$ ), allowing users to determine if an outlier can be statistically rejected based on the given data set size and alpha values.
16.8: Recommended Primary Standards
The document lists various metals and compounds along with their formulas and molecular weights. It specifies preparation and drying conditions for some compounds, denotes solubility in acids or water, and highlights any special handling instructions, such as being toxic or not storing in glass containers. Sources for this information are two academic journal articles.
16.9: Correcting Mass for the Buoyancy of Air
The text discusses the determination and correction of buoyancy errors when calibrating balances and volumetric glassware. Buoyancy causes objects to weigh less in air than in a vacuum, requiring a correction depending on the density difference between the object and calibration weights. The correction is usually minor but significant for low-density materials. Example calculations demonstrate how ignoring buoyancy introduces errors, emphasizing its importance in precise calibration.
16.10: Solubility Products
This document lists pKsp and Ksp values for various compounds, categorized by their anions. The information originates from the reference "Critical Stability Constants, Vol. 4" by Martell and Smith. The values, unless noted otherwise, are measured at 25??C and zero ionic strength. Compounds are organized under anions such as Bromide, Carbonate, Chloride, Chromate, and others, with specific pKsp and Ksp indicated for each, providing important data for assessing compound solubility.
16.11: Acid Dissociation Constants
This page provides pKa and Ka values for a range of weak acids, derived from critical stability constants. The data is relevant for weak acids at 25??C and zero ionic strength unless specified otherwise. Weak acids are listed by their neutral compound names, with information about their fully protonated forms and successive dissociation constants for polyprotic acids. The relationship between Ka and Kb for conjugate acids and bases is noted.
16.12: Formation Constants
The page contains a table of stability constants for various metal-ligand complexes, categorized by different ligands such as acetate, ammonia, chloride, etc. The data, sourced from Martell and Smith's "Critical Stability Constants," provides values at 25 ??C and zero ionic strength, though deviations are noted for certain entries. The constants are represented in logarithmic form, indicating the strength of interaction between metal ions like Cu, Ni, Ag, etc.
16.13: Standard Reduction Potentials
This page provides standard electrode potentials (Eo) and formal potentials (Eo ??) for various reduction reactions involving different elements, as sourced from multiple references. Each entry includes the specific reduction reaction and its corresponding potential values measured in volts. The information highlights discrepancies between sources for certain reactions, affecting the precision of potential calculations.
16.14: Random Number Table
The page provides a method to randomly select 10 numbers between 1 and 50 using a sequence of random digits from a table. Starting at a designated point, specific digits are used while others are ignored to generate these random numbers. This method ensures equal frequency of each digit and derives from the publication "Million Random Digits" by the Rand Corporation.
16.15: Polarographic Half-Wave Potentials
The page provides E1/2 values for reduction reactions of various elements in different matrices, as cited from Dean's Analytical Chemistry Handbook. Elements such as Al, Cd, Cr, Co, Cu, Fe, Pb, Mn, Ni, and Zn have their half-reaction potentials listed, each with specific conditions such as pH and molarity of different compounds like acetate, KCl, NH3, and others. These values are crucial for understanding the electrochemical behavior of these elements in various chemical environments.
16.16: Countercurrent Separations
In 1949, Lyman Craig improved the separation of analytes with similar distribution ratios through countercurrent liquid-liquid extraction, offering a foundational understanding of chromatographic separations. Unlike sequential extractions, countercurrent extraction involves serial extraction of both sample and extracting phases. While outdated due to chromotography's efficiency, it remains instructive theoretically.
16.17: Review of Chemical Kinetics
The page covers the concepts of chemical reaction equilibria and kinetics, emphasizing the relationship between reaction rates, equilibrium constants, and reaction orders. It explains the measurement and analysis of chemical reaction rates, focusing on first-order and second-order reactions, and discusses rate laws that relate the rate of a reaction to the concentration of its reactants and products.
16.18: Atomic Weights of the Elements
The atomic weight of isotopes is calculated relative to 12C, given an exact weight of 12. Atomic weights for elements are derived from the weights of their isotopes and their natural abundance. Some elements exhibit slight variations in isotopic abundance, resulting in a range of atomic weights. A representative atomic weight is often assigned within this range. For instance, carbon's range is [12.0096, 12.0116] with a representative weight of 12.011. These values are from a 2013 IUPAC report.

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