Book: Introductory Chemistry (CK-12)
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- 1: Introduction to Chemistry
- 2: Matter and Change
- 2.1: Substances
- 2.2: Physical Properties
- 2.3: Extensive and Intensive Properties
- 2.4: Solid, Liquid, and Gas
- 2.5: Physical Change
- 2.6: Homogeneous Mixture
- 2.7: Heterogeneous Mixtures
- 2.8: Methods for Separating Mixtures
- 2.9: Elements
- 2.10: Compounds
- 2.11: Chemical Change
- 2.12: Chemical Symbols and Formulas
- 2.13: Chemical Properties and Chemical Reactions
- 2.14: Reactants and Products
- 2.15: Recognizing Chemical Reactions
- 3: Measurements
- 3.1: SI Base Units
- 3.2: Metric Prefixes
- 3.3: Scientific Notation in Chemistry
- 3.4: SI Length and Volume Units
- 3.5: SI Mass and Weight Units
- 3.6: SI Kinetic Energy Units
- 3.7: Temperature and Temperature Scales
- 3.8: Scientific Dimensional Analysis
- 3.9: Metric Unit Conversions
- 3.10: Derived Units
- 3.11: Density
- 3.12: Accuracy and Precision
- 3.13: Percent Error
- 3.14: Measurement Uncertainty
- 3.15: Significant Figures
- 3.16: Rounding
- 3.17: Uncertainty in Multiplication and Division
- 3.18: Uncertainty in Addition and Subtraction
- 4: Atomic Structure
- 4.1: Democritus' Idea of the Atom
- 4.2: Conservation of Mass
- 4.3: Law of Definite Proportions
- 4.4: Law of Multiple Proportions
- 4.5: Mass Ratio Calculation
- 4.6: Dalton's Atomic Theory
- 4.7: Cathode Ray Tube
- 4.8: Electrons
- 4.9: Oil Drop Experiment
- 4.10: Protons
- 4.11: Neutrons
- 4.12: Thomson's Atomic Model
- 4.13: Rutherford's Atomic Model
- 4.14: Atomic Nucleus
- 4.15: Atomic Number
- 4.16: Mass Number
- 4.17: Isotopes
- 4.18: Atomic Mass Unit
- 4.19: Calculating Atomic Mass
- 5: Electrons in Atoms
- 5.1: Properties of Light
- 5.2: Wavelength and Frequency Calculations
- 5.3: Quantization of Energy
- 5.4: Photoelectric Effect
- 5.5: Atomic Emission Spectra
- 5.6: Bohr's Atomic Model
- 5.7: Spectral Lines of Atomic Hydrogen
- 5.8: de Broglie Wave Equation
- 5.9: Quantum Mechanics
- 5.10: Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
- 5.11: Quantum Mechanical Atomic Model
- 5.12: Quantum Numbers
- 5.13: Orbitals
- 5.14: Aufbau Principle
- 5.15: Pauli Exclusion Principle
- 5.16: Hund's Rule and Orbital Filling Diagrams
- 5.17: Electron Configurations
- 5.18: Valence Electrons
- 5.19: Noble Gas Configuration
- 6: The Periodic Table
- 6.1: Early History of the Periodic Table
- 6.2: Mendeleev's Periodic Table
- 6.3: Periodic Law
- 6.4: Modern Periodic Table: Periods and Groups
- 6.5: Metals
- 6.6: Nonmetals
- 6.7: Metalloids
- 6.8: Blocks of the Periodic Table
- 6.9: Hydrogen and Alkali Metals
- 6.10: Alkaline Earth Metals
- 6.11: Noble Gases
- 6.12: Halogens
- 6.13: Transition Elements
- 6.14: Lanthanides and Actinides
- 6.15: Periodic Trends: Atomic Radius
- 6.16: Periodic Trends: Ionization Energy
- 6.17: Electron Shielding
- 6.18: Electron Affinity
- 6.19: Ionic Radii
- 6.20: Periodic Trends: Electronegativity
- 6.21: Metallic and Nonmetallic Character
- 7: Chemical Nomenclature
- 7.1: Molecular Formula
- 7.2: Empirical Formula
- 7.3: Cations
- 7.4: Anions
- 7.5: Transition Metal Ions
- 7.6: Naming Binary Ionic Compounds
- 7.7: Stock System Naming
- 7.8: Formulas for Binary Ionic Compounds
- 7.9: Polyatomic Ions
- 7.10: Names and Formulas of Ternary Ionic Compounds
- 7.11: Naming Binary Molecular Compounds
- 7.12: Naming Acids
- 7.13: Names and Formulas of Bases
- 8: Ionic and Metallic Bonding
- 9: Covalent Bonding
- 9.1: Energy and Covalent Bond Formation
- 9.2: Lewis Electron-Dot Structures
- 9.3: Single Covalent Bonds
- 9.4: Multiple Covalent Bonds
- 9.5: Coordinate Covalent Bond
- 9.6: Covalent Bonding in Polyatomic Ions
- 9.7: Resonance
- 9.8: Exceptions to the Octet Rule
- 9.9: Bond Energy
- 9.10: VSEPR Theory
- 9.11: Molecular Shapes: No Lone Pairs on Central Atoms
- 9.12: Molecular Shapes: Lone Pair(s) on Central Atom
- 9.13: Bond Polarity
- 9.14: Polar Molecules
- 9.15: Van der Waals Forces
- 9.16: Hydrogen Bonding
- 9.17: Valence Bond Theory
- 9.18: Hybrid Orbitals - \(sp^3\)
- 9.19: Hybrid Orbitals - \(sp\) and \(sp^2\)
- 9.20: Sigma and Pi Bonds
- 10: The Mole
- 10.1: Avogadro's Number
- 10.2: Conversions Between Moles and Atoms
- 10.3: Molar Mass
- 10.4: Conversions Between Moles and Mass
- 10.5: Conversions Between Mass and Number of Particles
- 10.6: Avogadro's Hypothesis and Molar Volume
- 10.7: Conversions Between Moles and Gas Volume
- 10.8: Gas Density
- 10.9: Mole Road Map
- 10.10: Percent Composition
- 10.11: Percent of Water in a Hydrate
- 10.12: Determining Empirical Formulas
- 10.13: Determining Molecular Formulas
- 11: Chemical Reactions
- 12: Stoichiometry
- 12.1: Everyday Stoichiometry
- 12.2: Mole Ratios
- 12.3: Mass-Mole and Mole-Mass Stoichiometry
- 12.4: Mass-Mass Stoichiometry
- 12.5: Volume-Volume Stoichiometry
- 12.6: Mass-Volume and Volume-Mass Stoichiometry
- 12.7: Limiting Reactant
- 12.8: Determining the Limiting Reactant
- 12.9: Theoretical Yield and Percent Yield
- 13: States of Matter
- 13.1: Kinetic Molecular Theory
- 13.2: Gas Pressure
- 13.3: Atmospheric Pressure
- 13.4: Pressure Units and Conversions
- 13.5: Average Kinetic Energy
- 13.6: Physical Properties and Intermolecular Forces
- 13.7: Surface Tension
- 13.8: Evaporation
- 13.9: Vapor Pressure
- 13.10: Boiling Point
- 13.11: Vapor Pressure Curves
- 13.12: Melting Point
- 13.13: Sublimation
- 13.14: Crystal Systems
- 13.15: Unit Cells
- 13.16: Classes of Crystalline Solids
- 13.17: Amorphous Solids
- 13.18: Heating and Cooling Curves
- 13.19: General Phase Diagram
- 13.20: Phase Diagram for Water
- 14: The Behavior of Gases
- 14.1: Compressibility
- 14.2: Factors Affecting Gas Pressure
- 14.3: Boyle's Law
- 14.4: Charles's Law
- 14.5: Gay-Lussac's Law
- 14.6: Combined Gas Law
- 14.7: Avogadro's Law
- 14.8: Ideal Gas Law
- 14.9: Calculating the Molar Mass of a Gas
- 14.10: Gas Stoichiometry
- 14.11: Real and Ideal Gases
- 14.12: Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures
- 14.13: Mole Fraction
- 14.14: Gas Collection by Water Displacement
- 14.15: Diffusion and Effusion and Graham's Law
- 15: Water
- 16: Solutions
- 16.1: Solute-Solvent Combinations
- 16.2: Rate of Dissolving
- 16.3: Saturated and Unsaturated Solutions
- 16.4: How Temperature Influences Solubility
- 16.5: Supersaturated Solutions
- 16.6: Henry's Law
- 16.7: Percent Solutions
- 16.8: Molarity
- 16.9: Preparing Solutions
- 16.10: Dilution
- 16.11: Molality
- 16.12: Vapor Pressure Lowering
- 16.13: Freezing Point Depression
- 16.14: Boiling Point Elevation
- 16.15: Electrolytes and Colligative Properties
- 16.16: Calculating Molar Mass
- 16.17: Molecular and Ionic Equations
- 16.18: Net Ionic Equations
- 16.19: Predicting Precipitates Using Solubility Rules
- 17: Thermochemistry
- 17.1: Chemical Potential Energy
- 17.2: Heat
- 17.3: Exothermic and Endothermic Processes
- 17.4: Heat Capacity and Specific Heat
- 17.5: Specific Heat Calculations
- 17.6: Enthalpy
- 17.7: Calorimetry
- 17.8: Thermochemical Equations
- 17.9: Stoichiometric Calculations and Enthalpy Changes
- 17.10: Heats of Fusion and Solidification
- 17.11: Heats of Vaporization and Condensation
- 17.12: Multi-Step Problems with Changes of State
- 17.13: Heat of Solution
- 17.14: Heat of Combustion
- 17.15: Hess's Law of Heat Summation
- 17.16: Standard Heat of Formation
- 17.17: Calculating Heat of Reaction from Heat of Formation
- 18: Kinetics
- 18.10: Determining the Rate Law from Experimental Data
- 18.11: Reaction Mechanisms and the Elementary Step
- 18.12: Reaction Intermediate
- 18.13: Molecularity
- 18.14: Rate-Determining Step
- 18.15: Mechanisms and Potential Energy Diagrams
- 18.1: Chemical Reaction Rate
- 18.2: Collision Theory
- 18.3: Activation Energy
- 18.4: Potential Energy Diagrams
- 18.5: Activated Complex
- 18.6: Factors Affecting Reaction Rate
- 18.7: Catalysts
- 18.8: Rate Law and Specific Rate Constant
- 18.9: Order of Reaction
- 19: Equilibrium
- 19.10: Le Châtelier's Principle and the Equilibrium Constant
- 19.11: Solubility Product Constant \(\left( K_\text{sp} \right)\)
- 19.12: Conversion of Solubility to \(K_\text{sp}\)
- 19.13: Conversion of \(K_\text{sp}\) to Solubility
- 19.14: Predicting Precipitates
- 19.15: Common Ion Effect
- 19.1: Reversible Reaction
- 19.2: Chemical Equilibrium
- 19.3: Equilibrium Constant
- 19.4: Calculations with Equilibrium Constants
- 19.5: Le Châtelier's Principle
- 19.6: Effect of Concentration
- 19.7: Effect of Temperature
- 19.8: Effect of Pressure
- 19.9: Nonreversible Reactions
- 20: Entropy and Free Energy
- 21: Acids and Bases
- 21.1: Properties of Acids
- 21.2: Properties of Bases
- 21.3: Arrhenius Acids
- 21.4: Arrhenius Bases
- 21.5: Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases
- 21.6: Brønsted-Lowry Acid-Base Reactions
- 21.7: Lewis Acids and Bases
- 21.8: Ion-Product of Water
- 21.9: The pH Scale
- 21.10: Calculating pH of Acids and Bases
- 21.11: The pOH Concept
- 21.12: Strong and Weak Acids and Acid Ionization Constant \(\left( K_\text{a} \right)\)
- 21.13: Strong and Weak Bases and Base Ionization Constant \(\left( K_\text{b} \right)\)
- 21.14: Calculating \(K_\text{a}\) and \(K_\text{b}\)
- 21.15: Calculating pH of Weak Acid and Base Solutions
- 21.16: Neutralization Reaction and Net Ionic Equations for Neutralization Reactions
- 21.17: Titration Experiment
- 21.18: Titration Calculations
- 21.19: Titration Curves
- 21.20: Indicators
- 21.21: Hydrolysis of Salts: Equations
- 21.22: Calculating pH of Salt Solutions
- 21.23: Buffers
- 22: Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
- 22.1: Oxygen in Reactions
- 22.2: Redox Reactions and Ionic Compounds
- 22.3: Oxidizing and Reducing Agents
- 22.4: Molecular Redox Reactions
- 22.5: Corrosion
- 22.6: Assigning Oxidation Numbers
- 22.7: Changes in Oxidation Number in Redox Reactions
- 22.8: Identifying Reaction Types
- 22.9: Balancing Redox Reactions: Oxidation Number Change Method
- 22.10: Balancing Redox Reactions: Half-Reaction Method
- 22.11: Half-Reaction Method in Basic Solution
- 23: Electrochemistry
- 23.1: Direct Redox Reactions
- 23.2: Electrochemical Reaction
- 23.3: Voltaic Cells
- 23.4: Electrical Potential
- 23.5: Standard Hydrogen Electrode
- 23.6: Calculating Standard Cell Potentials
- 23.7: Batteries
- 23.8: Electrolytic Cells
- 23.9: Electrolysis of Water
- 23.10: Electrolysis of Molten Salts and Electrolysis of Brine
- 23.11: Electroplating
- 24: Nuclear Chemistry
- 24.10: Effects of Radiation
- 24.11: Radioisotopes in Medical Diagnosis and Treatment
- 24.12: PET Scans
- 24.1: Discovery of Radioactivity
- 24.2: Nuclear Decay Processes
- 24.3: Detection of Radioactivity
- 24.4: Half-Life
- 24.5: Background Radiation
- 24.6: Nuclear Fission Processes
- 24.7: Nuclear Power Generation
- 24.8: Nuclear Fusion
- 24.9: Penetrating Ability of Emissions
- 25: Organic Chemistry
- 25.1: Organic Chemistry
- 25.2: Straight-Chain Alkanes
- 25.3: Branched Alkanes
- 25.4: Alkenes and Alkynes
- 25.5: Isomers
- 25.6: Cyclic Hydrocarbons
- 25.7: Aromatic Hydrocarbons
- 25.8: Alkyl Halides
- 25.9: Alcohols
- 25.10: Ethers
- 25.11: Aldehydes and Ketones
- 25.12: Carboxylic Acids
- 25.13: Esters
- 25.14: Amines
- 25.15: Substitution Reactions
- 25.16: Addition Reactions
- 25.17: Oxidation Reactions
- 25.18: Condensation Reactions
- 25.19: Polymerization - Addition Polymers
- 25.20: Polymerization - Condensation Polymers
- 26: Biochemistry
1: Introduction to Chemistry
2: Matter and Change
3: Measurements
4: Atomic Structure
5: Electrons in Atoms
6: The Periodic Table
7: Chemical Nomenclature
8: Ionic and Metallic Bonding
9: Covalent Bonding
10: The Mole
11: Chemical Reactions
12: Stoichiometry
13: States of Matter
14: The Behavior of Gases
15: Water
16: Solutions
17: Thermochemistry
18: Kinetics
19: Equilibrium
20: Entropy and Free Energy
21: Acids and Bases
22: Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
23: Electrochemistry
24: Nuclear Chemistry
25: Organic Chemistry
26: Biochemistry
Contributors
CK-12 Foundation by Sharon Bewick, Richard Parsons, Therese Forsythe, Shonna Robinson, and Jean Dupon.