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25: Organic Chemistry

Last updated

Mar 21, 2025
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- 24.12: PET Scans
- 25.1: Organic Chemistry

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Organic chemistry is a very vast and complex subject. There are millions of known organic compounds—far more than the number of inorganic compounds. The reason for this lies within the uniqueness of carbon's structure and bonding capabilities. Carbon has four valence electrons, and therefore makes four separate covalent bonds in compounds. Carbon has the ability to bond to itself repeatedly, making long chains of carbon atoms, as well as ringed structures. These bonds can be single, double, or triple covalent bonds. Carbon readily makes covalent bonds with other elements—primarily hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, halogens, and several other nonmetals.

25.1: Organic Chemistry
This page discusses the vast number of known organic compounds, currently around 20 million and continually increasing. It defines organic compounds as carbon-based substances (excluding carbonates and oxides) with intricate structures, highlighting carbon's unique bonding abilities. The page outlines the field of organic chemistry, which studies these compounds, and its intersection with biochemistry, which examines the chemistry of living systems, particularly biochemical compounds.
25.2: Straight-Chain Alkanes
This page explores the viability of propane gas as an alternative transportation fuel, highlighting its efficiency, power, and lower pollution compared to gasoline. It also defines hydrocarbons, classifying them into aliphatic and aromatic types, with a focus on alkanes, which consist solely of single covalent bonds. The text outlines naming conventions for straight-chain alkanes and provides a table of the first ten alkanes in the series.
25.3: Branched Alkanes
This page discusses the identification of family trees and the naming of branched alkanes. It emphasizes the importance of precise relative naming for family trees and explains structural isomers, highlighting that they share the same molecular formula but differ in structure.
25.4: Alkenes and Alkynes
This page discusses the oxy-acetylene torch, known for cutting metal at temperatures exceeding 3000°C, while emphasizing the safety precautions due to the explosive nature of acetylene. It also defines alkenes and alkynes, two unsaturated hydrocarbons, with alkenes featuring carbon-carbon double bonds and the formula $\ce{C_{n}H_{2n}}$ , and alkynes containing carbon-carbon triple bonds with the formula $\ce{C_{n}H_{2n-2}}$ .
25.5: Isomers
This page discusses the intricacies of organic chemistry, emphasizing the role of molecular shape in reactions, especially for alkenes like 2-butene. It covers isomers, including structural and geometric types, and their distinct physical and chemical properties. Examples like cis-2-butene and trans-2-butene illustrate these differences, along with their industrial applications.
25.6: Cyclic Hydrocarbons
This page discusses cyclohexane, which is primarily derived from benzene hydrogenation and is vital for nylon production. It explains cyclic hydrocarbons, specifically cycloalkanes with single bonds, highlighting cyclopropane's instability and cyclohexane's stability due to its chair and boat conformations. It notes that larger cycloalkanes are uncommon and mentions the existence of unsaturated cyclic hydrocarbons, such as cycloalkenes and cycloalkynes, which contain double or triple bonds.
25.7: Aromatic Hydrocarbons
This page discusses Friedrich Kekulé, a 19th-century chemist who conceptualized benzene's cyclic structure, inspired by a dream. Benzene, an aromatic hydrocarbon with six hydrogen atoms and stabilizing delocalized pi electrons, has varied nomenclature based on its substituents. Basic naming involves alkyl groups, while arrangements with multiple substituents are identified by position numbers or ortho, meta, and para prefixes.
25.8: Alkyl Halides
This page discusses chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), a type of alkyl halide, known for their role in aerosol sprays and refrigerants. Their detrimental impact on the ozone layer, notably over Antarctica, raised environmental concerns in the late 1970s, leading to a reduction in their use.
25.9: Alcohols
This page discusses the freezing point of water and its impact on car engines in winter. It highlights the use of antifreeze, particularly propylene glycol, to mitigate freezing risks. Additionally, it explains the classification of alcohols based on R groups and notes their water solubility, which diminishes with longer carbon chains.
25.10: Ethers
This page discusses how race car drivers legally enhance speed through methods like efficient gasoline combustion. It notes the phase-out of methyl-t-butyl ether (MTBE) due to contamination issues. Ethers, organic compounds with an oxygen atom between two hydrocarbon groups, are defined by IUPAC rules, are water-soluble, and have lower boiling points than alcohols due to weaker intermolecular forces. Ethers, once used as anesthetics, are now mainly used as solvents for organic compounds.
25.11: Aldehydes and Ketones
This page discusses the appeal of cinnamon rolls, attributed to cinnamaldehyde, historically used for health treatments, with modern research investigating cinnamon's health benefits. It also explains aldehydes and ketones, organic compounds containing a carbonyl group, highlighting their structural differences, properties, and applications, such as their lower boiling points compared to alcohols.
25.12: Carboxylic Acids
This page discusses vinegar, which is mainly composed of acetic acid, a carboxylic acid with distinctive properties like hydrogen bonding that affect its melting and boiling points. It highlights vinegar's multifunctional uses in cleaning, food preservation, and flavoring, mentioning other acids like citric and benzoic acid. Additionally, it notes the industrial applications of acetic acid, showcasing its versatility and importance in various fields.
25.13: Esters
This page discusses the composition and extraction of perfumes, highlighting that they are mainly sourced from around 2,000 plant species. Methods like solvent extraction and distillation are used, and oil dilution in ethanol impacts pricing. Key components are esters, which are organic compounds influential in creating scents, with unique properties related to boiling points and solubility. Esters play a significant role in the natural odors and flavors of plants.
25.14: Amines
This page discusses melatonin, a brain-produced amine that regulates the sleep-wake cycle and is affected by sunlight, causing winter sleep issues. Melatonin supplements can help. Additionally, it explains that amines are ammonia derivatives classified by nitrogen bonding and are weak bases with varying properties. They are important in biological processes and have industrial uses, such as in dyes and pharmaceuticals.
25.15: Substitution Reactions
This page discusses halothane, an anesthetic, and its limited use due to toxicity. It explains substitution reactions in organic compounds, detailing how alkyl halides form from methane and chlorine, and further reactions producing dichloromethane and carbon tetrachloride. The text also covers halogen substitution in benzene and the introduction of alkyl groups, as well as the formation of alcohol from alkyl halides through reactions with bases.
25.16: Addition Reactions
This page compares margarine and butter, noting margarine's cost-effectiveness, lower fat content, and extended shelf life due to hydrogenated vegetable fats. It also covers addition reactions, particularly hydrogenation, which converts alkenes to alkanes using a platinum catalyst, and hydration reactions involving water and alkenes. Additionally, the text points out that benzene is resistant to addition reactions under mild conditions but can react under high temperatures and pressure.
25.17: Oxidation Reactions
This page discusses the production and role of benzoic acid as a food preservative, its effectiveness in acidic foods, and its synthesis from toluene. It explains oxidation processes in organic chemistry, detailing the transformations of alkanes to alkenes and alkynes, methane's oxidation to carbon dioxide, and how alcohols oxidize to form aldehydes, ketones, or carboxylic acids depending on the type, with primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols having different oxidation outcomes.
25.18: Condensation Reactions
This page discusses the research of vegetable oils as eco-friendly substitutes for petroleum, especially in lubricants, where specialized esters could improve stability. It explains condensation reactions, specifically how amino acids form dipeptides, and outlines esterification, which creates esters from alcohols and carboxylic acids. Additionally, it defines saponification as the alkaline hydrolysis of esters to produce soap.
25.19: Polymerization - Addition Polymers
This page discusses the benefits and environmental concerns of Styrofoam containers, highlighting their persistence in landfills and the lack of effective recycling. It also explains the nature of polymers, specifically how addition polymers are formed from monomers with double bonds through initiation, propagation, and termination processes. Various types of polymers, such as polyethylene and polypropylene, are mentioned along with their distinct uses and properties.
25.20: Polymerization - Condensation Polymers
This page discusses the evolution of guitar strings from animal intestines and silk to modern steel and nylon materials. Steel strings became popular around 1900 for various music genres, while nylon strings, introduced during WWII, are preferred for classical music. It also covers condensation polymers such as polyamides and polyesters, highlighting their applications in textiles and food packaging due to their durability and wrinkle resistance.

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