13: States of Matter
- Page ID
- 53798
\( \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)
\( \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash {#1}}} \)
\( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)
( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)
\( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\) \( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)
\( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\) \( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)
\( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\)
\( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)
\( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\)
\( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)
\( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\)
\( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)
\( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\)
\( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)
\( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\)
\( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)
\( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\)
\( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \( \newcommand{\AA}{\unicode[.8,0]{x212B}}\)
\( \newcommand{\vectorA}[1]{\vec{#1}} % arrow\)
\( \newcommand{\vectorAt}[1]{\vec{\text{#1}}} % arrow\)
\( \newcommand{\vectorB}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)
\( \newcommand{\vectorC}[1]{\textbf{#1}} \)
\( \newcommand{\vectorD}[1]{\overrightarrow{#1}} \)
\( \newcommand{\vectorDt}[1]{\overrightarrow{\text{#1}}} \)
\( \newcommand{\vectE}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash{\mathbf {#1}}}} \)
\( \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)
\( \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash {#1}}} \)
\(\newcommand{\avec}{\mathbf a}\) \(\newcommand{\bvec}{\mathbf b}\) \(\newcommand{\cvec}{\mathbf c}\) \(\newcommand{\dvec}{\mathbf d}\) \(\newcommand{\dtil}{\widetilde{\mathbf d}}\) \(\newcommand{\evec}{\mathbf e}\) \(\newcommand{\fvec}{\mathbf f}\) \(\newcommand{\nvec}{\mathbf n}\) \(\newcommand{\pvec}{\mathbf p}\) \(\newcommand{\qvec}{\mathbf q}\) \(\newcommand{\svec}{\mathbf s}\) \(\newcommand{\tvec}{\mathbf t}\) \(\newcommand{\uvec}{\mathbf u}\) \(\newcommand{\vvec}{\mathbf v}\) \(\newcommand{\wvec}{\mathbf w}\) \(\newcommand{\xvec}{\mathbf x}\) \(\newcommand{\yvec}{\mathbf y}\) \(\newcommand{\zvec}{\mathbf z}\) \(\newcommand{\rvec}{\mathbf r}\) \(\newcommand{\mvec}{\mathbf m}\) \(\newcommand{\zerovec}{\mathbf 0}\) \(\newcommand{\onevec}{\mathbf 1}\) \(\newcommand{\real}{\mathbb R}\) \(\newcommand{\twovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\ctwovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\threevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cthreevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\mattwo}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{rr}#1 \amp #2 \\ #3 \amp #4 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\laspan}[1]{\text{Span}\{#1\}}\) \(\newcommand{\bcal}{\cal B}\) \(\newcommand{\ccal}{\cal C}\) \(\newcommand{\scal}{\cal S}\) \(\newcommand{\wcal}{\cal W}\) \(\newcommand{\ecal}{\cal E}\) \(\newcommand{\coords}[2]{\left\{#1\right\}_{#2}}\) \(\newcommand{\gray}[1]{\color{gray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\lgray}[1]{\color{lightgray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\rank}{\operatorname{rank}}\) \(\newcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\col}{\text{Col}}\) \(\renewcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\nul}{\text{Nul}}\) \(\newcommand{\var}{\text{Var}}\) \(\newcommand{\corr}{\text{corr}}\) \(\newcommand{\len}[1]{\left|#1\right|}\) \(\newcommand{\bbar}{\overline{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bhat}{\widehat{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bperp}{\bvec^\perp}\) \(\newcommand{\xhat}{\widehat{\xvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\vhat}{\widehat{\vvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\uhat}{\widehat{\uvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\what}{\widehat{\wvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\Sighat}{\widehat{\Sigma}}\) \(\newcommand{\lt}{<}\) \(\newcommand{\gt}{>}\) \(\newcommand{\amp}{&}\) \(\definecolor{fillinmathshade}{gray}{0.9}\)- 13.1: Kinetic Molecular Theory
- This page highlights the significance of oxygen for life and its storage in tanks due to compressibility. It introduces the kinetic-molecular theory, which explains gas behavior through five key assumptions: particles are numerous and spread out, in constant motion, collide elastically, have no intermolecular forces, and possess kinetic energy related to temperature. This theory is crucial for understanding gas properties and behaviors in everyday scenarios.
- 13.2: Gas Pressure
- This page explains how hot air balloons function by using gas pressure from heated air. Initially flat, the balloon rises when the internal air is heated, increasing the velocity and pressure of air molecules. This inflation occurs due to gas particle collisions against surfaces, with pressure directly influenced by temperature—higher temperatures result in higher pressures, facilitating the balloon's ascent.
- 13.3: Atmospheric Pressure
- This page explains the importance of atmospheric pressure in weather forecasting, storm formation, and wind strength. It covers how barometers measure pressure, noting that sea level pressure is 760 mm Hg, which decreases with altitude, such as to 253 mm Hg on Mount Everest. This reduction impacts oxygen availability, necessitating supplemental oxygen for climbers. Understanding these pressure dynamics is vital for accurate weather predictions.
- 13.4: Pressure Units and Conversions
- This page discusses the importance of maintaining tire pressure between 32-35 psi for safety, efficiency, and tire longevity, emphasizing measurements should be taken when cold. It outlines various pressure units like mmHg, torr, pascal, kPa, atm, and psi, providing conversions among them. For instance, 1 atm equals 760 mmHg or 101.3 kPa, and example calculations show that 613 mmHg is approximately 0.807 atm and 81.7 kPa.
- 13.5: Average Kinetic Energy and Temperature
- This page explains kinetic energy as the energy of motion, illustrated through baseball actions like pitching and swinging. It connects temperature to the average kinetic energy of particles, noting that as temperature rises, kinetic energy variability increases. Absolute zero, where particle motion stops, is discussed along with its practical inaccessibility.
- 13.6: Physical Properties and Intermolecular Forces
- This page discusses the properties of carbon, highlighting its two main forms, diamond and graphite, and how chemical bonding influences the characteristics of carbon compounds. It explains that molecular compounds exhibit varying physical properties and typically possess lower melting and boiling points than ionic compounds, which can conduct electricity when molten or in solution. Additionally, it mentions that covalent network solids like diamond require very high temperatures to change state.
- 13.6: Surface Tension
- This page explains how water skaters and other insects use surface tension to stay on the water's surface. Surface tension is created by intermolecular forces acting on surface molecules, primarily seen in liquids like water, which has strong hydrogen bonding.
- 13.7: Evaporation
- This page explains swamp coolers, originating from ancient Egyptian cooling methods. They work best in hot, dry conditions, detailing the evaporation process where liquid converts to vapor, leading to cooling, similar to perspiration. The text emphasizes that higher temperatures increase evaporation rates due to more molecules gaining kinetic energy.
- 13.8: Vapor Pressure
- This page explains the drinking duck toy as a demonstration of vapor pressure principles. It describes how sealing the container leads to evaporation and vapor pressure exertion, establishing dynamic equilibrium between liquid and vapor phases. The summary highlights the relationship between vapor pressure and temperature, noting that stronger intermolecular forces lead to lower vapor pressures and weaker forces result in higher pressures.
- 13.9: Boiling
- This page discusses the challenges of climbing Mount Everest, focusing on the impact of high altitude on oxygen levels and the boiling point of water. At 29,029 feet, climbers often require oxygen tanks due to lower oxygen levels, and water boils at about 70°C instead of 100°C, complicating cooking. The boiling point decreases with altitude as vapor pressure changes, affecting climbers' daily activities.
- 13.10: Vapor Pressure Curves
- This page explains how covering boiling water with a lid increases pressure and reduces evaporation, leading to faster boiling. It discusses the relationship between boiling point, intermolecular forces, and external pressure, noting that higher altitudes lower boiling points, as seen in places like Denver and Mt. Everest.
- 13.11: Melting
- This page explains melting, defining the melting point as the temperature at which a solid becomes a liquid. It describes the behavior of solid particles, which vibrate and become more mobile with heat, overcoming attractive forces. Examples include ice melting at 0 °C and sodium chloride at 801 °C. The text highlights the role of intermolecular forces in determining melting points and includes a table of various materials and their respective melting points.
- 13.12: Sublimation
- This page discusses the challenges early settlers had with laundry in winter due to difficulties in drying clothes. It explains the process of sublimation, where ice can turn directly into vapor, and provides examples like iodine and dry ice. Additionally, it mentions the practical applications of sublimation in purifying ferrocene, highlighting its relevance beyond just household laundry issues.
- 13.13: Crystal Systems
- This page discusses the diverse applications of lasers, including distance measurement and cancer treatment, made effective by high-quality crystals. It explains that crystals, structured in a repeating 3D pattern called the crystal lattice, are categorized into seven systems based on geometric properties, which influence their shapes and functionalities.
- 13.14: Unit Cells
- This page discusses how x-ray diffraction measures atomic sizes, illustrated through the concept of unit cells in crystal lattices. It details the cubic crystal system's three unit cell types—simple, face-centered, and body-centered—as well as other crystal forms, such as rhombohedral, hexagonal, and tetragonal, each with its unique unit cell structure.
- 13.15: Classes of Crystalline Solids
- This page discusses the use of copper wires in electronic devices and classifies crystalline solids into four types: ionic, metallic, covalent network, and molecular crystals. Each type has distinct properties, such as differences in melting and boiling points and electrical conductivity.
- 13.17: Amorphous Solids
- This page discusses amorphous solids, like rubber, glass, and plastics, which lack ordered internal structures and do not have sharp melting points. They exhibit uniform properties in all directions, causing unique behaviors such as irregular shattering. While plastics are valued for their low cost and durability, their disposal presents environmental challenges, leading to increased recycling initiatives.
- 13.18: Heating and Cooling Curves
- This page discusses Mark Twain's pen name, reflecting on his background as a steamboat pilot. It explains water's state changes, detailing temperature stability during melting and boiling due to energy usage for phase transitions, illustrated by a heating curve.
- 13.19: General Phase Diagram
- This page discusses rocket fuel, specifically a mixture of kerosene and liquid oxygen, which is liquefied at high pressure rather than low temperatures. It explains phase diagrams, highlighting the states of matter—solid, liquid, gas—related to temperature and pressure, including melting, boiling points, and the triple point. Additionally, it notes that increased pressure generally leads to solids becoming liquids and describes the sublimation process where solids convert directly to gases.
- 13.20: Phase Diagram for Water
- This page explores the properties of snow and water, emphasizing that slightly wet snow is ideal for snowball making due to enhanced particle cohesion. It notes that ice is less dense than liquid water, enabling it to float, and highlights a negative slope in the phase diagram between solid and liquid phases. Additionally, it defines the critical point at a temperature of 373.99°C and a pressure of 217.75 atm, indicating conditions where gas cannot be liquefied, regardless of pressure.