9: Solutions
- Page ID
- 15928
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\(\newcommand{\avec}{\mathbf a}\) \(\newcommand{\bvec}{\mathbf b}\) \(\newcommand{\cvec}{\mathbf c}\) \(\newcommand{\dvec}{\mathbf d}\) \(\newcommand{\dtil}{\widetilde{\mathbf d}}\) \(\newcommand{\evec}{\mathbf e}\) \(\newcommand{\fvec}{\mathbf f}\) \(\newcommand{\nvec}{\mathbf n}\) \(\newcommand{\pvec}{\mathbf p}\) \(\newcommand{\qvec}{\mathbf q}\) \(\newcommand{\svec}{\mathbf s}\) \(\newcommand{\tvec}{\mathbf t}\) \(\newcommand{\uvec}{\mathbf u}\) \(\newcommand{\vvec}{\mathbf v}\) \(\newcommand{\wvec}{\mathbf w}\) \(\newcommand{\xvec}{\mathbf x}\) \(\newcommand{\yvec}{\mathbf y}\) \(\newcommand{\zvec}{\mathbf z}\) \(\newcommand{\rvec}{\mathbf r}\) \(\newcommand{\mvec}{\mathbf m}\) \(\newcommand{\zerovec}{\mathbf 0}\) \(\newcommand{\onevec}{\mathbf 1}\) \(\newcommand{\real}{\mathbb R}\) \(\newcommand{\twovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\ctwovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\threevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cthreevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\mattwo}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{rr}#1 \amp #2 \\ #3 \amp #4 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\laspan}[1]{\text{Span}\{#1\}}\) \(\newcommand{\bcal}{\cal B}\) \(\newcommand{\ccal}{\cal C}\) \(\newcommand{\scal}{\cal S}\) \(\newcommand{\wcal}{\cal W}\) \(\newcommand{\ecal}{\cal E}\) \(\newcommand{\coords}[2]{\left\{#1\right\}_{#2}}\) \(\newcommand{\gray}[1]{\color{gray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\lgray}[1]{\color{lightgray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\rank}{\operatorname{rank}}\) \(\newcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\col}{\text{Col}}\) \(\renewcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\nul}{\text{Nul}}\) \(\newcommand{\var}{\text{Var}}\) \(\newcommand{\corr}{\text{corr}}\) \(\newcommand{\len}[1]{\left|#1\right|}\) \(\newcommand{\bbar}{\overline{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bhat}{\widehat{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bperp}{\bvec^\perp}\) \(\newcommand{\xhat}{\widehat{\xvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\vhat}{\widehat{\vvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\uhat}{\widehat{\uvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\what}{\widehat{\wvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\Sighat}{\widehat{\Sigma}}\) \(\newcommand{\lt}{<}\) \(\newcommand{\gt}{>}\) \(\newcommand{\amp}{&}\) \(\definecolor{fillinmathshade}{gray}{0.9}\)Solutions are all around us. Air, for example, is a solution. If you live near a lake, a river, or an ocean, that body of water is not pure H2O but most probably a solution. Much of what we drink—for example, soda, coffee, tea, and milk—is at least in part a solution. Solutions are a large part of everyday life. A lot of the chemistry occurring around us happens in solution. In fact, much of the chemistry that occurs in our own bodies takes place in solution, and many solutions—such as the Ringer’s lactate IV solution—are important for our health. In our understanding of chemistry, we need to understand a little bit about solutions. In this chapter, you will learn about the special characteristics of solutions, how solutions are characterized, and some of their properties.
- 9.0: Prelude to Solutions
- This page discusses Ringer's lactate, an intravenous solution used to administer essential substances and increase blood volume. It contains sodium chloride, potassium, calcium, and lactate, which helps maintain acid-base balance. It's especially useful for patients with heart attacks and shock. Physicians select from various premade IV solutions, including Ringer's lactate and D5W, tailored to individual patient needs.
- 9.1: Solutions
- This page explains that a solution is a homogeneous mixture of a solute and solvent, where they are indistinguishable. The solvent is usually the major component, and similar intermolecular interactions are necessary for mixing, encapsulated in the rule "like dissolves like." It specifies that polar solvents dissolve polar/ionic solutes and nonpolar solvents dissolve nonpolar solutes.
- 9.2: Concentration
- This page covers key learning objectives related to calculating concentration metrics, such as percentage concentrations (m/m, v/v, m/v), ppm, ppb, and molarity. It emphasizes the importance of understanding solubility and solution types, along with practical applications in stoichiometry and medical contexts like IV fluids. Examples illustrate calculating mass/volume percentages and using molarity in stoichiometric problems.
- 9.3: The Dissolution Process
- This page explains the dissolution process, highlighting how solute particles interact with solvent particles, leading to solvation or dissociation. It distinguishes between electrolytes, which conduct electricity by dissociating in solution, and nonelectrolytes, which do not. The importance of electrolyte balance in body fluids and their role in hydration, particularly during dehydration, is discussed.
- 9.4: Properties of Solutions
- This page explores the effects of solutes on solutions versus pure solvents, particularly focusing on colligative properties like vapor pressure depression, boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, and osmotic pressure. It covers osmolarity and its role in solvent movement across membranes, with calculations for different solutes.
- 9.5: Chemical Equilibrium
- This page explains chemical equilibrium through the hydrogen-iodine reaction, emphasizing the equalization of forward and reverse reaction rates. It details the dynamic nature of equilibrium, the definition and significance of the equilibrium constant (K), and its calculation based on concentration and temperature. K values indicate the preference for products or reactants, and the reaction quotient (Q) predicts reaction direction.
- 9.6: Le Chatelier's Principle
- This page explains Le Chatelier's principle, which outlines how chemical systems at equilibrium react to disturbances like concentration, temperature, and pressure changes. It describes that systems shift to counteract stress, favoring either the forward or reverse reaction to establish a new equilibrium. Key insights include that increasing temperature favors endothermic reactions, while decreasing temperature favors exothermic ones.
- 9.7: Osmosis and Diffusion
- This page explains how cells respond to different concentrations of solutions: hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic. It highlights the role of the semipermeable plasma membrane in regulating substance movement and protecting the cell. The process of diffusion is described as the movement of molecules from areas of higher concentration to lower concentration until equilibrium is achieved.
- 9.E: Solutions (Exercises)
- This page offers a comprehensive overview of solutions in chemistry, detailing the interactions between solutes and solvents, solubility, and concentration. It presents various properties, exercises on calculating molarity and osmolarity, and discusses the implications of osmotic pressure and water movement in biological systems. It includes reactions involving important chemicals like sodium bisulfite, calcium nitrate, and sodium carbonate.
- 9.S: Solutions (Summary)
- This page explores solutions as homogeneous mixtures of solvents and solutes, defining key terms like solubility and concentration methods such as molarity. It distinguishes between electrolytes and nonelectrolytes, delves into colligative properties, and emphasizes osmotic pressure's significance in biology. The chapter concludes by discussing osmosis and its effects on red blood cell function in various solution environments.