12: Liquids, Solids, and Intermolecular Forces
- Page ID
- 47426
\( \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)
\( \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash {#1}}} \)
\( \newcommand{\dsum}{\displaystyle\sum\limits} \)
\( \newcommand{\dint}{\displaystyle\int\limits} \)
\( \newcommand{\dlim}{\displaystyle\lim\limits} \)
\( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)
( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)
\( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\) \( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)
\( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\) \( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)
\( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\)
\( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)
\( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\)
\( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)
\( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\)
\( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)
\( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\)
\( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)
\( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\)
\( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)
\( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\)
\( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \( \newcommand{\AA}{\unicode[.8,0]{x212B}}\)
\( \newcommand{\vectorA}[1]{\vec{#1}} % arrow\)
\( \newcommand{\vectorAt}[1]{\vec{\text{#1}}} % arrow\)
\( \newcommand{\vectorB}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)
\( \newcommand{\vectorC}[1]{\textbf{#1}} \)
\( \newcommand{\vectorD}[1]{\overrightarrow{#1}} \)
\( \newcommand{\vectorDt}[1]{\overrightarrow{\text{#1}}} \)
\( \newcommand{\vectE}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash{\mathbf {#1}}}} \)
\( \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)
\(\newcommand{\longvect}{\overrightarrow}\)
\( \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash {#1}}} \)
\(\newcommand{\avec}{\mathbf a}\) \(\newcommand{\bvec}{\mathbf b}\) \(\newcommand{\cvec}{\mathbf c}\) \(\newcommand{\dvec}{\mathbf d}\) \(\newcommand{\dtil}{\widetilde{\mathbf d}}\) \(\newcommand{\evec}{\mathbf e}\) \(\newcommand{\fvec}{\mathbf f}\) \(\newcommand{\nvec}{\mathbf n}\) \(\newcommand{\pvec}{\mathbf p}\) \(\newcommand{\qvec}{\mathbf q}\) \(\newcommand{\svec}{\mathbf s}\) \(\newcommand{\tvec}{\mathbf t}\) \(\newcommand{\uvec}{\mathbf u}\) \(\newcommand{\vvec}{\mathbf v}\) \(\newcommand{\wvec}{\mathbf w}\) \(\newcommand{\xvec}{\mathbf x}\) \(\newcommand{\yvec}{\mathbf y}\) \(\newcommand{\zvec}{\mathbf z}\) \(\newcommand{\rvec}{\mathbf r}\) \(\newcommand{\mvec}{\mathbf m}\) \(\newcommand{\zerovec}{\mathbf 0}\) \(\newcommand{\onevec}{\mathbf 1}\) \(\newcommand{\real}{\mathbb R}\) \(\newcommand{\twovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\ctwovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\threevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cthreevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\mattwo}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{rr}#1 \amp #2 \\ #3 \amp #4 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\laspan}[1]{\text{Span}\{#1\}}\) \(\newcommand{\bcal}{\cal B}\) \(\newcommand{\ccal}{\cal C}\) \(\newcommand{\scal}{\cal S}\) \(\newcommand{\wcal}{\cal W}\) \(\newcommand{\ecal}{\cal E}\) \(\newcommand{\coords}[2]{\left\{#1\right\}_{#2}}\) \(\newcommand{\gray}[1]{\color{gray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\lgray}[1]{\color{lightgray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\rank}{\operatorname{rank}}\) \(\newcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\col}{\text{Col}}\) \(\renewcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\nul}{\text{Nul}}\) \(\newcommand{\var}{\text{Var}}\) \(\newcommand{\corr}{\text{corr}}\) \(\newcommand{\len}[1]{\left|#1\right|}\) \(\newcommand{\bbar}{\overline{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bhat}{\widehat{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bperp}{\bvec^\perp}\) \(\newcommand{\xhat}{\widehat{\xvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\vhat}{\widehat{\vvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\uhat}{\widehat{\uvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\what}{\widehat{\wvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\Sighat}{\widehat{\Sigma}}\) \(\newcommand{\lt}{<}\) \(\newcommand{\gt}{>}\) \(\newcommand{\amp}{&}\) \(\definecolor{fillinmathshade}{gray}{0.9}\)In Chapter 6, we discussed the properties of gases. In this chapter, we consider some properties of liquids and solids. As a review, the table below lists some general properties of the three phases of matter.
| Phase | Shape | Density | Compressibility |
|---|---|---|---|
| Gas | fills entire container | low | high |
| Liquid | fills a container from bottom to top | high | low |
| Solid | rigid | high | low |
- 12.1: Interactions between Molecules
- This page explains the melting point as the temperature at which a solid becomes a liquid, highlighting the phase transition where particle vibrations surpass attractive forces. It notes that solids are incompressible due to their fixed particle arrangement. The page emphasizes the importance of intermolecular forces on melting points, illustrating differences with examples like sodium chloride and ice, and establishes water's melting point equilibrium at 0 °C.
- 12.2: Properties of Liquids and Solids
- This page explains the properties of condensed phases, which include solids and liquids. Solids have fixed particles, ensuring definite shape and volume, while liquids have movable particles, offering a definite volume but no specific shape. The transition between solid and liquid maintains similar volume, unlike the significant volume increase when transitioning from liquid to gas.
- 12.3: Intermolecular Forces in Action- Surface Tension and Viscosity
- This page explains surface tension in liquids, highlighting its connection to intermolecular forces. It describes how surface molecules are pulled inwards, resulting in a tightened surface that can support denser objects. Liquids with strong forces, like water's hydrogen bonding, exhibit higher surface tension than those with weaker forces, exemplified through water striders and floating paper clips.
- 12.4: Evaporation and Condensation
- This page explores how intermolecular forces affect vaporization, evaporation, and condensation, starting with the example of a swamp cooler to illustrate evaporative cooling. It details the evaporation process and how higher temperatures accelerate it, distinguishes evaporation from boiling, and defines boiling as vapor pressure equaling external pressure.
- 12.5: Melting, Freezing, and Sublimation
- This page covers phase changes of matter, including melting, freezing, and sublimation, highlighting the impact of temperature and heat transfer on states. It defines melting and boiling points, explains isothermal phase changes, and discusses heat quantities like heat of fusion and vaporization. It illustrates melting point variations based on particle bond strength and notes that melting and freezing points are equivalent, revealing the equilibrium between solid and liquid states.
- 12.6: Intermolecular Forces- Dispersion, Dipole–Dipole, Hydrogen Bonding, and Ion-Dipole
- This page covers intermolecular forces in liquids, emphasizing their impact on physical properties and phase transitions. It details dipole-dipole interactions, London dispersion forces, and hydrogen bonding. Dipole-dipole forces arise from polar molecules, while London dispersion forces occur in nonpolar molecules due to temporary electron fluctuations. Hydrogen bonds, formed with electronegative elements, significantly influence water's boiling point and ice's lower density.
- 12.7: Types of Crystalline Solids
- This page categorizes crystalline solids into four classes: ionic, metallic, covalent network, and molecular. It details their unique properties, including conductivity, melting and boiling points, and structural characteristics. Ionic crystals consist of alternating charged ions; metallic crystals have mobile valence electrons; covalent network crystals feature strong covalent bonds, while molecular crystals are formed by weaker intermolecular forces.
- 12.8: Water - A Remarkable Molecule
- This page highlights the unique properties of water that support life, including its role as a solvent, its density differences between ice and liquid, and its energy absorption capabilities that influence temperature and weather. It also discusses the significance of water's phase diagram, particularly the negative slope indicating that higher pressure can melt ice, and the critical point that marks the limits for liquid water stability.