9: Solutions
- Page ID
- 86243
\( \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)
\( \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash {#1}}} \)
\( \newcommand{\dsum}{\displaystyle\sum\limits} \)
\( \newcommand{\dint}{\displaystyle\int\limits} \)
\( \newcommand{\dlim}{\displaystyle\lim\limits} \)
\( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)
( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)
\( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\) \( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)
\( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\) \( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)
\( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\)
\( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)
\( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\)
\( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)
\( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\)
\( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)
\( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\)
\( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)
\( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\)
\( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)
\( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\)
\( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \( \newcommand{\AA}{\unicode[.8,0]{x212B}}\)
\( \newcommand{\vectorA}[1]{\vec{#1}} % arrow\)
\( \newcommand{\vectorAt}[1]{\vec{\text{#1}}} % arrow\)
\( \newcommand{\vectorB}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)
\( \newcommand{\vectorC}[1]{\textbf{#1}} \)
\( \newcommand{\vectorD}[1]{\overrightarrow{#1}} \)
\( \newcommand{\vectorDt}[1]{\overrightarrow{\text{#1}}} \)
\( \newcommand{\vectE}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash{\mathbf {#1}}}} \)
\( \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)
\(\newcommand{\longvect}{\overrightarrow}\)
\( \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash {#1}}} \)
\(\newcommand{\avec}{\mathbf a}\) \(\newcommand{\bvec}{\mathbf b}\) \(\newcommand{\cvec}{\mathbf c}\) \(\newcommand{\dvec}{\mathbf d}\) \(\newcommand{\dtil}{\widetilde{\mathbf d}}\) \(\newcommand{\evec}{\mathbf e}\) \(\newcommand{\fvec}{\mathbf f}\) \(\newcommand{\nvec}{\mathbf n}\) \(\newcommand{\pvec}{\mathbf p}\) \(\newcommand{\qvec}{\mathbf q}\) \(\newcommand{\svec}{\mathbf s}\) \(\newcommand{\tvec}{\mathbf t}\) \(\newcommand{\uvec}{\mathbf u}\) \(\newcommand{\vvec}{\mathbf v}\) \(\newcommand{\wvec}{\mathbf w}\) \(\newcommand{\xvec}{\mathbf x}\) \(\newcommand{\yvec}{\mathbf y}\) \(\newcommand{\zvec}{\mathbf z}\) \(\newcommand{\rvec}{\mathbf r}\) \(\newcommand{\mvec}{\mathbf m}\) \(\newcommand{\zerovec}{\mathbf 0}\) \(\newcommand{\onevec}{\mathbf 1}\) \(\newcommand{\real}{\mathbb R}\) \(\newcommand{\twovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\ctwovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\threevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cthreevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\mattwo}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{rr}#1 \amp #2 \\ #3 \amp #4 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\laspan}[1]{\text{Span}\{#1\}}\) \(\newcommand{\bcal}{\cal B}\) \(\newcommand{\ccal}{\cal C}\) \(\newcommand{\scal}{\cal S}\) \(\newcommand{\wcal}{\cal W}\) \(\newcommand{\ecal}{\cal E}\) \(\newcommand{\coords}[2]{\left\{#1\right\}_{#2}}\) \(\newcommand{\gray}[1]{\color{gray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\lgray}[1]{\color{lightgray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\rank}{\operatorname{rank}}\) \(\newcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\col}{\text{Col}}\) \(\renewcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\nul}{\text{Nul}}\) \(\newcommand{\var}{\text{Var}}\) \(\newcommand{\corr}{\text{corr}}\) \(\newcommand{\len}[1]{\left|#1\right|}\) \(\newcommand{\bbar}{\overline{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bhat}{\widehat{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bperp}{\bvec^\perp}\) \(\newcommand{\xhat}{\widehat{\xvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\vhat}{\widehat{\vvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\uhat}{\widehat{\uvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\what}{\widehat{\wvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\Sighat}{\widehat{\Sigma}}\) \(\newcommand{\lt}{<}\) \(\newcommand{\gt}{>}\) \(\newcommand{\amp}{&}\) \(\definecolor{fillinmathshade}{gray}{0.9}\)- 9.1: Mixtures and Solutions
- This page explains the classification of mixtures as homogeneous or heterogeneous. Heterogeneous mixtures have visible components, while homogeneous mixtures are uniform and can be categorized into solutions and colloids based on particle size. Solutions, with particles smaller than 2 nm, remain stable, while colloids, with particles between 2-500 nm, can scatter light. The solvent is the main component of a solution, with examples such as air and saltwater provided in tables.
- 9.2: The Solution Process
- This page covers molecular interactions affecting solubility, highlighting "like dissolves like," solvation, and dissociation processes. It distinguishes between electrolytes, which conduct electricity, and nonelectrolytes, which do not, emphasizing their importance in bodily functions and hydration. The history of Gatorade's creation to enhance athletic performance is also noted.
- 9.3: Solubility
- This page explains solution concentration, solubility, and solution equilibrium. It defines saturated and unsaturated solutions based on solute amounts relative to solubility limits and introduces supersaturated solutions. Additionally, it describes the dynamic equilibrium between dissolution and crystallization, highlighting the interaction of solute particles with solvent and solute crystals.
- 9.4: The Effect of Temperature on Solubility
- This page explains how temperature affects the solubility of solutes, noting that solid solutes generally become more soluble with increased temperature, while gas solubility typically decreases. It discusses solubility curves to identify saturated and unsaturated solutions, introduces supersaturated solutions and their ability to hold excess solute, and emphasizes the use of seed crystals for recrystallization.
- 9.5: The Effect of Pressure on Solubility - Henry’s Law
- This page covers the relationship between pressure and gas solubility in liquids, emphasizing that higher partial pressure enhances gas solubility per Henry's Law. It uses carbonated beverages as an example, where decreased pressure causes CO2 to escape. The page also addresses the dangers of decompression sickness in scuba divers, stressing the importance of ascending slowly or utilizing recompression therapy to prevent harmful gas bubble formation in the bloodstream.
- 9.6: Units of Concentration
- This page covers the various methods for expressing solution concentration, including percent concentrations (m/m, v/v, m/v), parts per million, and parts per billion, alongside calculating molarity, which is the number of moles of solute per liter of solution. It highlights the importance of molarity in stoichiometry for chemical reactions, demonstrating its application in determining volumes and amounts of reactants needed.
- 9.7: Dilution
- This page explains the calculation of solution concentration through dilution and concentration processes, emphasizing that dilution reduces solute concentration by adding solvent, while concentration increases it by removing solvent. It introduces the dilution equation \(M_1V_1 = M_2V_2\) for calculating new concentrations during volume changes. Practical examples, such as preparing IV solutions, underline the significance of precise dilution calculations for patient safety.
- 9.8: Ions in Solution - Electrolytes
- This page classifies solutes as strong electrolytes, weak electrolytes, or nonelectrolytes based on their ion production in solution. Strong electrolytes fully dissociate, while weak electrolytes partially dissociate, with electrical conductivity helping to identify them. It explains ion-dipole attraction in ionic compound dissolution and notes that some covalent compounds can act as electrolytes when reacting with water.
- 9.9: Properties of Solutions
- This page covers colligative properties of solutions, focusing on how solute concentration impacts vapor pressure, boiling point, and freezing point. It distinguishes between effects of ionic and molecular compounds on these properties and provides practical examples, such as the use of salt in cooking and its influence on freezing points in winter.
- 9.10: Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure
- This page explains osmosis, the movement of solvent molecules through semipermeable membranes from dilute to concentrated solutions, and introduces osmotic pressure and osmolarity. It underscores the significance of isotonic solutions for biological systems and how osmotic pressure impacts cells, particularly in medical situations. Additionally, it highlights practical applications in food preservation and plant biology.
- 9.11: Dialysis
- This page explains the distinctions between dialysis and osmosis, emphasizing that dialysis uses larger membrane pores allowing for both solvent and small solute passage, unlike osmosis which permits only solvent movement. It covers the kidney's filtration role through nephrons, the hemodialysis process using artificial kidneys, and highlights the importance of dialysis technicians in patient care during treatments.