10: Three Major Classes of Chemical Reactions
- Page ID
- 482044
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\(\newcommand{\avec}{\mathbf a}\) \(\newcommand{\bvec}{\mathbf b}\) \(\newcommand{\cvec}{\mathbf c}\) \(\newcommand{\dvec}{\mathbf d}\) \(\newcommand{\dtil}{\widetilde{\mathbf d}}\) \(\newcommand{\evec}{\mathbf e}\) \(\newcommand{\fvec}{\mathbf f}\) \(\newcommand{\nvec}{\mathbf n}\) \(\newcommand{\pvec}{\mathbf p}\) \(\newcommand{\qvec}{\mathbf q}\) \(\newcommand{\svec}{\mathbf s}\) \(\newcommand{\tvec}{\mathbf t}\) \(\newcommand{\uvec}{\mathbf u}\) \(\newcommand{\vvec}{\mathbf v}\) \(\newcommand{\wvec}{\mathbf w}\) \(\newcommand{\xvec}{\mathbf x}\) \(\newcommand{\yvec}{\mathbf y}\) \(\newcommand{\zvec}{\mathbf z}\) \(\newcommand{\rvec}{\mathbf r}\) \(\newcommand{\mvec}{\mathbf m}\) \(\newcommand{\zerovec}{\mathbf 0}\) \(\newcommand{\onevec}{\mathbf 1}\) \(\newcommand{\real}{\mathbb R}\) \(\newcommand{\twovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\ctwovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\threevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cthreevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\mattwo}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{rr}#1 \amp #2 \\ #3 \amp #4 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\laspan}[1]{\text{Span}\{#1\}}\) \(\newcommand{\bcal}{\cal B}\) \(\newcommand{\ccal}{\cal C}\) \(\newcommand{\scal}{\cal S}\) \(\newcommand{\wcal}{\cal W}\) \(\newcommand{\ecal}{\cal E}\) \(\newcommand{\coords}[2]{\left\{#1\right\}_{#2}}\) \(\newcommand{\gray}[1]{\color{gray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\lgray}[1]{\color{lightgray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\rank}{\operatorname{rank}}\) \(\newcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\col}{\text{Col}}\) \(\renewcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\nul}{\text{Nul}}\) \(\newcommand{\var}{\text{Var}}\) \(\newcommand{\corr}{\text{corr}}\) \(\newcommand{\len}[1]{\left|#1\right|}\) \(\newcommand{\bbar}{\overline{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bhat}{\widehat{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bperp}{\bvec^\perp}\) \(\newcommand{\xhat}{\widehat{\xvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\vhat}{\widehat{\vvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\uhat}{\widehat{\uvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\what}{\widehat{\wvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\Sighat}{\widehat{\Sigma}}\) \(\newcommand{\lt}{<}\) \(\newcommand{\gt}{>}\) \(\newcommand{\amp}{&}\) \(\definecolor{fillinmathshade}{gray}{0.9}\)- 10.1: Formula Mass
- The formula mass of a substance is the sum of the average atomic masses of each atom represented in the chemical formula and is expressed in atomic mass units. The formula mass of a covalent compound is also called the molecular mass. A convenient amount unit for expressing very large numbers of atoms or molecules is the mole. Experimental measurements have determined the number of entities composing 1 mole of substance to be \(6.022 \times 10^{23}\), a quantity called Avogadro’s number.
- 10.2: Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations
- Chemical equations are symbolic representations of chemical and physical changes. Formulas for the substances undergoing the change (reactants) and substances generated by the change (products) are separated by an arrow and preceded by integer coefficients indicating their relative numbers. Balanced equations are those whose coefficients result in equal numbers of atoms for each element in the reactants and products.
- 10.3: Reaction Stoichiometry
- A balanced chemical equation may be used to describe a reaction’s stoichiometry (the relationships between amounts of reactants and products). Coefficients from the equation are used to derive stoichiometric factors that subsequently may be used for computations relating reactant and product masses, molar amounts, and other quantitative properties.
- 10.4: Reaction Yields
- When reactions are carried out using less-than-stoichiometric quantities of reactants, the amount of product generated will be determined by the limiting reactant. The amount of product generated by a chemical reaction is its actual yield, which is often less than the amount of product predicted by the stoichiometry of the balanced chemical equation representing the reaction (theoretical yield). The extent to which a reaction generates the theoretical amount is expressed as its percent yield.
- 10.5: Molarity
- Solutions are homogeneous mixtures. Many solutions contain one component, called the solvent, in which other components, called solutes, are dissolved. An aqueous solution is one for which the solvent is water. The concentration of a solution is a measure of the relative amount of solute in a given amount of solution. Concentrations may be measured using various units, with one very useful unit being molarity, defined as the number of moles of solute per liter of solution.
- 10.6: Precipitation Reactions
- Precipitation reactions occur when at least one of the products is insoluble in the solvent being used. In this section, this idea is quantified in more detail.
- 10.7: Acid-Base Reactions
- Acids and bases common in everyday life - there is even hydrochloric acid in your stomach! In this section, you will learn how to describe the behaviour of these compounds.
- 10.8: Stoichiometry of Reactions in Aqueous Solutions- Titrations
- In the lab setting, titrations are used to determine the concentration of an unknown. In this section, you will explore how acid/base titrations are carried out. You will be performing an acid/base titration during the lab.
- 10.9: Oxidation-Reduction- Some General Principles
- Redox reactions involve electron transfer meaning oxidation (electron loss) and reduction (electron gain), following OIL RIG. Rules assign oxidation states: elements = 0, ions = charge, O = -2 (exceptions), H = +1/-1. Examples: rusting (Fe → Fe²⁺ + O₂ → O²⁻), metal displacement (Zn + Cu²⁺ → Zn²⁺ + Cu). The activity series predicts reactivity (higher metals displace lower ones). Key in batteries, corrosion, and metabolism. Remember electrons lost = electrons gained.
- 10.10: Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Equations
- In this section: how to balance redox reactions in aqueous solutions using oxidation states or half-reactions. Key steps include assigning oxidation numbers, separating reactions into oxidation and reduction half-reactions, balancing electrons, and adjusting for charge (H⁺/OH⁻) and atoms (H₂O). Examples cover acidic and basic conditions, single-displacement reactions, and trends (strong oxidants like MnO₄⁻ vs. reductants like CH₄). The method ensures correct stoichiometry for reaction analysis.
- 10.11: Oxidizing and Reducing Agents
- Oxidants accept electrons, becoming reduced, while reductants donate electrons, becoming oxidized. Strong oxidants react vigorously, while weaker ones are less reactive. Combustion reactions involve O₂ as the oxidant, with carbon oxidized to CO₂. Redox reactions in solution require balancing methods (oxidation states or half-reactions) for accurate stoichiometry. High oxidation state species act as oxidants, while low oxidation state species act as reductants, driving redox reactions when mixed.
- 10.12: Key Terms
- These are key terms from the chapter. They are a good place to see your level of understanding, you should be able to understand each term, what it means, and how it is connected to the content covered.
- 10.13: Key Equations
- These are key equations. You should know how and when to use them. To practice their applications, check out 10.E.
- 10.E: Reactions in Aqueous Solution (Exercises)
- These are homework exercises can be used to practice the concepts from this chapter.
- 10.S: Summary
- This section provides a brief summary of all the sections covered. It is important to understand that this should not be seen as a summary that will help you understand everything; it will only get you familiar with big concepts.