Skip to main content
Chemistry LibreTexts

2: Systems and Their Properties

  • Page ID
    20403
  • \( \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)

    \( \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash {#1}}} \)

    \( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)

    ( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)

    \( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\) \( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)

    \( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\) \( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)

    \( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\)

    \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)

    \( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\)

    \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)

    \( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\)

    \( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)

    \( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\)

    \( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)

    \( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\)

    \( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)

    \( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\)

    \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \( \newcommand{\AA}{\unicode[.8,0]{x212B}}\)

    \( \newcommand{\vectorA}[1]{\vec{#1}}      % arrow\)

    \( \newcommand{\vectorAt}[1]{\vec{\text{#1}}}      % arrow\)

    \( \newcommand{\vectorB}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)

    \( \newcommand{\vectorC}[1]{\textbf{#1}} \)

    \( \newcommand{\vectorD}[1]{\overrightarrow{#1}} \)

    \( \newcommand{\vectorDt}[1]{\overrightarrow{\text{#1}}} \)

    \( \newcommand{\vectE}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash{\mathbf {#1}}}} \)

    \( \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)

    \( \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash {#1}}} \)

    \(\newcommand{\avec}{\mathbf a}\) \(\newcommand{\bvec}{\mathbf b}\) \(\newcommand{\cvec}{\mathbf c}\) \(\newcommand{\dvec}{\mathbf d}\) \(\newcommand{\dtil}{\widetilde{\mathbf d}}\) \(\newcommand{\evec}{\mathbf e}\) \(\newcommand{\fvec}{\mathbf f}\) \(\newcommand{\nvec}{\mathbf n}\) \(\newcommand{\pvec}{\mathbf p}\) \(\newcommand{\qvec}{\mathbf q}\) \(\newcommand{\svec}{\mathbf s}\) \(\newcommand{\tvec}{\mathbf t}\) \(\newcommand{\uvec}{\mathbf u}\) \(\newcommand{\vvec}{\mathbf v}\) \(\newcommand{\wvec}{\mathbf w}\) \(\newcommand{\xvec}{\mathbf x}\) \(\newcommand{\yvec}{\mathbf y}\) \(\newcommand{\zvec}{\mathbf z}\) \(\newcommand{\rvec}{\mathbf r}\) \(\newcommand{\mvec}{\mathbf m}\) \(\newcommand{\zerovec}{\mathbf 0}\) \(\newcommand{\onevec}{\mathbf 1}\) \(\newcommand{\real}{\mathbb R}\) \(\newcommand{\twovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\ctwovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\threevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cthreevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\mattwo}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{rr}#1 \amp #2 \\ #3 \amp #4 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\laspan}[1]{\text{Span}\{#1\}}\) \(\newcommand{\bcal}{\cal B}\) \(\newcommand{\ccal}{\cal C}\) \(\newcommand{\scal}{\cal S}\) \(\newcommand{\wcal}{\cal W}\) \(\newcommand{\ecal}{\cal E}\) \(\newcommand{\coords}[2]{\left\{#1\right\}_{#2}}\) \(\newcommand{\gray}[1]{\color{gray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\lgray}[1]{\color{lightgray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\rank}{\operatorname{rank}}\) \(\newcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\col}{\text{Col}}\) \(\renewcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\nul}{\text{Nul}}\) \(\newcommand{\var}{\text{Var}}\) \(\newcommand{\corr}{\text{corr}}\) \(\newcommand{\len}[1]{\left|#1\right|}\) \(\newcommand{\bbar}{\overline{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bhat}{\widehat{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bperp}{\bvec^\perp}\) \(\newcommand{\xhat}{\widehat{\xvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\vhat}{\widehat{\vvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\uhat}{\widehat{\uvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\what}{\widehat{\wvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\Sighat}{\widehat{\Sigma}}\) \(\newcommand{\lt}{<}\) \(\newcommand{\gt}{>}\) \(\newcommand{\amp}{&}\) \(\definecolor{fillinmathshade}{gray}{0.9}\)

    \( \newcommand{\tx}[1]{\text{#1}}      % text in math mode\)
     \( \newcommand{\subs}[1]{_{\text{#1}}} % subscript text\)
     \( \newcommand{\sups}[1]{^{\text{#1}}} % superscript text\)
     \( \newcommand{\st}{^\circ}            % standard state symbol\)
     \( \newcommand{\id}{^{\text{id}}}      % ideal\)
     \( \newcommand{\rf}{^{\text{ref}}}     % reference state\)
     \( \newcommand{\units}[1]{\mbox{$\thinspace$#1}}\)
     \( \newcommand{\K}{\units{K}}  % kelvins\)
     \( \newcommand{\degC}{^\circ\text{C}} % degrees Celsius\)
     \( \newcommand{\br}{\units{bar}}  % bar (\bar is already defined)\)
     \( \newcommand{\Pa}{\units{Pa}}\)
     \( \newcommand{\mol}{\units{mol}}  % mole\)
     \( \newcommand{\V}{\units{V}}  % volts\)
     \( \newcommand{\timesten}[1]{\mbox{$\,\times\,10^{#1}$}}\)
     \( \newcommand{\per}{^{-1}}  % minus one power\)
     \( \newcommand{\m}{_{\text{m}}}  % subscript m for molar quantity\)
     \( \newcommand{\CVm}{C_{V,\text{m}}} % molar heat capacity at const.V\)
     \( \newcommand{\Cpm}{C_{p,\text{m}}} % molar heat capacity at const.p\)
     \( \newcommand{\kT}{\kappa_T} % isothermal compressibility\)
     \( \newcommand{\A}{_{\text{A}}}  % subscript A for solvent or state A\)
     \( \newcommand{\B}{_{\text{B}}}  % subscript B for solute or state B\)
     \( \newcommand{\bd}{_{\text{b}}}  % subscript b for boundary or boiling point\)
     \( \newcommand{\C}{_{\text{C}}}  % subscript C\)
     \( \newcommand{\f}{_{\text{f}}}  % subscript f for freezing point\)
     \( \newcommand{\mA}{_{\text{m},\text{A}}} % subscript m,A (m=molar)\)
     \( \newcommand{\mB}{_{\text{m},\text{B}}} % subscript m,B (m=molar)\)
     \( \newcommand{\mi}{_{\text{m},i}}        % subscript m,i (m=molar)\)
     \( \newcommand{\fA}{_{\text{f},\text{A}}} % subscript f,A (for fr. pt.)\)
     \( \newcommand{\fB}{_{\text{f},\text{B}}} % subscript f,B (for fr. pt.)\)
     \( \newcommand{\xbB}{_{x,\text{B}}}       % x basis, B\)
     \( \newcommand{\xbC}{_{x,\text{C}}}       % x basis, C\)
     \( \newcommand{\cbB}{_{c,\text{B}}}       % c basis, B\)
     \( \newcommand{\mbB}{_{m,\text{B}}}       % m basis, B\)
     \( \newcommand{\kHi}{k_{\text{H},i}}      % Henry's law constant, x basis, i\)
     \( \newcommand{\kHB}{k_{\text{H,B}}}      % Henry's law constant, x basis, B\)
     \( \newcommand{\arrow}{\,\rightarrow\,} % right arrow with extra spaces\)
     \( \newcommand{\arrows}{\,\rightleftharpoons\,} % double arrows with extra spaces\)
     \( \newcommand{\ra}{\rightarrow} % right arrow (can be used in text mode)\)
     \( \newcommand{\eq}{\subs{eq}} % equilibrium state\)
     \( \newcommand{\onehalf}{\textstyle\frac{1}{2}\D} % small 1/2 for display equation\)
     \( \newcommand{\sys}{\subs{sys}} % system property\)
     \( \newcommand{\sur}{\sups{sur}} % surroundings\)
     \( \renewcommand{\in}{\sups{int}} % internal\)
     \( \newcommand{\lab}{\subs{lab}} % lab frame\)
     \( \newcommand{\cm}{\subs{cm}} % center of mass\)
     \( \newcommand{\rev}{\subs{rev}} % reversible\)
     \( \newcommand{\irr}{\subs{irr}} % irreversible\)
     \( \newcommand{\fric}{\subs{fric}} % friction\)
     \( \newcommand{\diss}{\subs{diss}} % dissipation\)
     \( \newcommand{\el}{\subs{el}} % electrical\)
     \( \newcommand{\cell}{\subs{cell}} % cell\)
     \( \newcommand{\As}{A\subs{s}} % surface area\)
     \( \newcommand{\E}{^\mathsf{E}} % excess quantity (superscript)\)
     \( \newcommand{\allni}{\{n_i \}} % set of all n_i\)
     \( \newcommand{\sol}{\hspace{-.1em}\tx{(sol)}}\)
     \( \newcommand{\solmB}{\tx{(sol,$\,$$m\B$)}}\)
     \( \newcommand{\dil}{\tx{(dil)}}\)
     \( \newcommand{\sln}{\tx{(sln)}}\)
     \( \newcommand{\mix}{\tx{(mix)}}\)
     \( \newcommand{\rxn}{\tx{(rxn)}}\)
     \( \newcommand{\expt}{\tx{(expt)}}\)
     \( \newcommand{\solid}{\tx{(s)}}\)
     \( \newcommand{\liquid}{\tx{(l)}}\)
     \( \newcommand{\gas}{\tx{(g)}}\)
     \( \newcommand{\pha}{\alpha}        % phase alpha\)
     \( \newcommand{\phb}{\beta}         % phase beta\)
     \( \newcommand{\phg}{\gamma}        % phase gamma\)
     \( \newcommand{\aph}{^{\alpha}}     % alpha phase superscript\)
     \( \newcommand{\bph}{^{\beta}}      % beta phase superscript\)
     \( \newcommand{\gph}{^{\gamma}}     % gamma phase superscript\)
     \( \newcommand{\aphp}{^{\alpha'}}   % alpha prime phase superscript\)
     \( \newcommand{\bphp}{^{\beta'}}    % beta prime phase superscript\)
     \( \newcommand{\gphp}{^{\gamma'}}   % gamma prime phase superscript\)
     \( \newcommand{\apht}{\small\aph} % alpha phase tiny superscript\)
     \( \newcommand{\bpht}{\small\bph} % beta phase tiny superscript\)
     \( \newcommand{\gpht}{\small\gph} % gamma phase tiny superscript\)

    \( \newcommand{\upOmega}{\Omega}\)

     \( \newcommand{\dif}{\mathop{}\!\mathrm{d}}   % roman d in math mode, preceded by space\)
     \( \newcommand{\Dif}{\mathop{}\!\mathrm{D}}   % roman D in math mode, preceded by space\)
     \( \newcommand{\df}{\dif\hspace{0.05em} f} % df\)

     \(\newcommand{\dBar}{\mathop{}\!\mathrm{d}\hspace-.3em\raise1.05ex{\Rule{.8ex}{.125ex}{0ex}}} % inexact differential \)
     \( \newcommand{\dq}{\dBar q} % heat differential\)
     \( \newcommand{\dw}{\dBar w} % work differential\)
     \( \newcommand{\dQ}{\dBar Q} % infinitesimal charge\)
     \( \newcommand{\dx}{\dif\hspace{0.05em} x} % dx\)
     \( \newcommand{\dt}{\dif\hspace{0.05em} t} % dt\)
     \( \newcommand{\difp}{\dif\hspace{0.05em} p} % dp\)
     \( \newcommand{\Del}{\Delta}\)
     \( \newcommand{\Delsub}[1]{\Delta_{\text{#1}}}\)
     \( \newcommand{\pd}[3]{(\partial #1 / \partial #2 )_{#3}} % \pd{}{}{} - partial derivative, one line\)
     \( \newcommand{\Pd}[3]{\left( \dfrac {\partial #1} {\partial #2}\right)_{#3}} % Pd{}{}{} - Partial derivative, built-up\)
     \( \newcommand{\bpd}[3]{[ \partial #1 / \partial #2 ]_{#3}}\)
     \( \newcommand{\bPd}[3]{\left[ \dfrac {\partial #1} {\partial #2}\right]_{#3}}\)
     \( \newcommand{\dotprod}{\small\bullet}\)
     \( \newcommand{\fug}{f} % fugacity\)
     \( \newcommand{\g}{\gamma} % solute activity coefficient, or gamma in general\)
     \( \newcommand{\G}{\varGamma} % activity coefficient of a reference state (pressure factor)\)
     \( \newcommand{\ecp}{\widetilde{\mu}} % electrochemical or total potential\)
     \( \newcommand{\Eeq}{E\subs{cell, eq}} % equilibrium cell potential\)
     \( \newcommand{\Ej}{E\subs{j}} % liquid junction potential\)
     \( \newcommand{\mue}{\mu\subs{e}} % electron chemical potential\)
    \( \newcommand{\defn}{\,\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}\,} % "equal by definition" symbol\)

     \( \newcommand{\D}{\displaystyle} % for a line in built-up\)
     \( \newcommand{\s}{\smash[b]} % use in equations with conditions of validity\)
     \( \newcommand{\cond}[1]{\\[-2.5pt]{}\tag*{#1}}\)
     \( \newcommand{\nextcond}[1]{\\[-5pt]{}\tag*{#1}}\)
     \( \newcommand{\R}{8.3145\units{J$\,$K$\per\,$mol$\per$}}     % gas constant value\)
     \( \newcommand{\Rsix}{8.31447\units{J$\,$K$\per\,$mol$\per$}} % gas constant value - 6 sig figs\)

    \( \newcommand{\jn}{\hspace3pt\lower.3ex{\Rule{.6pt}{2ex}{0ex}}\hspace3pt} \)
    \( \newcommand{\ljn}{\hspace3pt\lower.3ex{\Rule{.6pt}{.5ex}{0ex}}\hspace-.6pt\raise.45ex{\Rule{.6pt}{.5ex}{0ex}}\hspace-.6pt\raise1.2ex{\Rule{.6pt}{.5ex}{0ex}} \hspace3pt} \)
    \( \newcommand{\lljn}{\hspace3pt\lower.3ex{\Rule{.6pt}{.5ex}{0ex}}\hspace-.6pt\raise.45ex{\Rule{.6pt}{.5ex}{0ex}}\hspace-.6pt\raise1.2ex{\Rule{.6pt}{.5ex}{0ex}}\hspace1.4pt\lower.3ex{\Rule{.6pt}{.5ex}{0ex}}\hspace-.6pt\raise.45ex{\Rule{.6pt}{.5ex}{0ex}}\hspace-.6pt\raise1.2ex{\Rule{.6pt}{.5ex}{0ex}}\hspace3pt} \) 

    This chapter begins by explaining some basic terminology of thermodynamics. It discusses macroscopic properties of matter in general and properties distinguishing different physical states of matter in particular. Virial equations of state of a pure gas are introduced. The chapter goes on to discuss some basic macroscopic properties and their measurement. Finally, several important concepts needed in later chapters are described: thermodynamic states and state functions, independent and dependent variables, processes, and internal energy.


    This page titled 2: Systems and Their Properties is shared under a CC BY 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Howard DeVoe via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform.

    • Was this article helpful?