11: Nuclear Chemistry
- Page ID
- 86257
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\(\newcommand{\avec}{\mathbf a}\) \(\newcommand{\bvec}{\mathbf b}\) \(\newcommand{\cvec}{\mathbf c}\) \(\newcommand{\dvec}{\mathbf d}\) \(\newcommand{\dtil}{\widetilde{\mathbf d}}\) \(\newcommand{\evec}{\mathbf e}\) \(\newcommand{\fvec}{\mathbf f}\) \(\newcommand{\nvec}{\mathbf n}\) \(\newcommand{\pvec}{\mathbf p}\) \(\newcommand{\qvec}{\mathbf q}\) \(\newcommand{\svec}{\mathbf s}\) \(\newcommand{\tvec}{\mathbf t}\) \(\newcommand{\uvec}{\mathbf u}\) \(\newcommand{\vvec}{\mathbf v}\) \(\newcommand{\wvec}{\mathbf w}\) \(\newcommand{\xvec}{\mathbf x}\) \(\newcommand{\yvec}{\mathbf y}\) \(\newcommand{\zvec}{\mathbf z}\) \(\newcommand{\rvec}{\mathbf r}\) \(\newcommand{\mvec}{\mathbf m}\) \(\newcommand{\zerovec}{\mathbf 0}\) \(\newcommand{\onevec}{\mathbf 1}\) \(\newcommand{\real}{\mathbb R}\) \(\newcommand{\twovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\ctwovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\threevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cthreevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\mattwo}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{rr}#1 \amp #2 \\ #3 \amp #4 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\laspan}[1]{\text{Span}\{#1\}}\) \(\newcommand{\bcal}{\cal B}\) \(\newcommand{\ccal}{\cal C}\) \(\newcommand{\scal}{\cal S}\) \(\newcommand{\wcal}{\cal W}\) \(\newcommand{\ecal}{\cal E}\) \(\newcommand{\coords}[2]{\left\{#1\right\}_{#2}}\) \(\newcommand{\gray}[1]{\color{gray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\lgray}[1]{\color{lightgray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\rank}{\operatorname{rank}}\) \(\newcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\col}{\text{Col}}\) \(\renewcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\nul}{\text{Nul}}\) \(\newcommand{\var}{\text{Var}}\) \(\newcommand{\corr}{\text{corr}}\) \(\newcommand{\len}[1]{\left|#1\right|}\) \(\newcommand{\bbar}{\overline{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bhat}{\widehat{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bperp}{\bvec^\perp}\) \(\newcommand{\xhat}{\widehat{\xvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\vhat}{\widehat{\vvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\uhat}{\widehat{\uvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\what}{\widehat{\wvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\Sighat}{\widehat{\Sigma}}\) \(\newcommand{\lt}{<}\) \(\newcommand{\gt}{>}\) \(\newcommand{\amp}{&}\) \(\definecolor{fillinmathshade}{gray}{0.9}\)Most chemists pay little attention to the nucleus of an atom except to consider the number of protons it contains because that determines an element’s identity. However, in nuclear chemistry, the composition of the nucleus and the changes that occur there are very important. Applications of nuclear chemistry may be more widespread than you realize. Many people are aware of nuclear power plants and nuclear bombs, but nuclear chemistry also has applications ranging from smoke detectors to medicine, from the sterilization of food to the analysis of ancient artifacts. In this chapter, we will examine some of the basic concepts of nuclear chemistry and some of the nuclear reactions that are important in our everyday lives.
- 11.1: Nuclear Reactions
- This page covers nuclear chemistry, detailing the nucleus's structure with protons and neutrons, and explains isotopes. It distinguishes between nuclear and chemical reactions, emphasizing that nuclear reactions affect the nucleus and can produce different elements, while chemical reactions deal with electron transfers. The page highlights that nuclear reactions are less influenced by environmental factors and release much more energy.
- 11.2: The Discovery and Nature of Radioactivity
- This page discusses the discovery of radioactivity by Henri Becquerel in 1896 and outlines its three main forms: alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays. It details their characteristics, including mass, charge, and penetrating abilities, noting that alpha particles have minimal penetration, beta particles penetrate skin slightly, and gamma rays are highly penetrating.
- 11.3: Stable and Unstable Isotopes
- This page covers radioactivity and unstable nuclides, focusing on how nuclear composition, particularly the neutron-to-proton ratio, dictates stability. It introduces the "band of stability" that outlines stable nuclei ranges for various elements. The page details that while unstable nuclei decay radioactively at differing rates, it uses examples like carbon-12 and uranium-238 to illustrate these concepts.
- 11.4: Nuclear Decay
- This page provides a comprehensive overview of nuclear reactions, focusing on radioactive decay processes such as alpha, beta, and gamma emissions. It explains how unstable nuclei transform to achieve stability by emitting radiation and details the implications for atomic and mass numbers. Balanced nuclear equations are emphasized, along with strategies to predict decay types based on neutron-to-proton ratios.
- 11.5: Radioactive Half-Life
- This page explains the concept of half-life in archaeology for dating artifacts and fossils, focusing on carbon-14's half-life of 5730 years for organic materials. It describes methods for calculating the remaining radioactive isotope, the application of carbon-14 dating, and the presence of radioactive isotopes in the human body.
- 11.6: Ionizing Radiation
- This page explains the differences between ionizing and nonionizing radiation, highlighting their energy levels and effects on matter. Nonionizing radiation is low-energy, causing motion or heating without chemical changes, while ionizing radiation is high-energy, capable of ionizing atoms and causing chemical damage. It details the penetration abilities of various radiation types, noting alpha particles' limited penetration compared to gamma rays.
- 11.7: Detecting and Measuring Radiation
- This page covers the measurement of radiation exposure and its impact on human health. It details various units like the becquerel (Bq), curie (Ci), gray (Gy), and rem, which quantify radioactivity and absorbed doses. The text highlights the health effects of different radiation doses, ranging from negligible to fatal outcomes, while discussing the challenges of assessing risks from both artificial and natural sources.
- 11.8: Artificial Transmutation
- This page covers transmutation, detailing its natural and artificial processes, historic experiments, and the creation of transuranium elements. It highlights the Large Hadron Collider and its findings, such as the Higgs boson, while addressing transmutation's role in nuclear medicine and the issue of radioactive waste. Additionally, it explains nuclear equations, emphasizing the need to balance mass and atomic numbers in reactions.
- 11.9: Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion
- This page covers nuclear fission and fusion processes, emphasizing their energy-release mechanisms and the role of nuclear binding energy. Fission involves splitting large atoms, while fusion combines smaller ones. Key topics include chain reactions, critical mass, and safety measures in nuclear power plants, as evidenced by historical accidents like Chernobyl and Fukushima.