General Chemistry
- Last updated
- Save as PDF
- Page ID
- 25121
- Map: Chemistry - The Central Science (Brown et al.)
- 1: Introduction - Matter and Measurement
- 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions
- 2.1: The Atomic Theory of Matter
- 2.2: The Discovery of Atomic Structure
- 2.3: The Modern View of Atomic Structure
- 2.4: Atomic Mass
- 2.5: The Periodic Table
- 2.6: Molecules and Molecular Compounds
- 2.7: Ions and Ionic Compounds
- 2.8: Naming Inorganic Compounds
- 2.9: Some Simple Organic Compounds
- 2.E: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions (Exercises)
- 2.S: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions (Summary)
- 3: Stoichiometry: Chemical Formulas and Equations
- 4: Reactions in Aqueous Solution
- 4.1: General Properties of Aqueous Solutions
- 4.2: Precipitation Reactions
- 4.3: Acid-Base Reactions
- 4.4: Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
- 4.5: Concentration of Solutions
- 4.6: Solution Stoichiometry and Chemical Analysis
- 4.E: Reactions in Aqueous Solution (Exercises)
- 4.S: Reactions in Aqueous Solution (Summary)
- 5: Thermochemistry
- 6: Electronic Structure of Atoms
- 6.1: The Wave Nature of Light
- 6.2: Quantized Energy and Photons
- 6.3: Line Spectra and the Bohr Model
- 6.4: The Wave Behavior of Matter
- 6.5: Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Orbitals
- 6.6: 3D Representation of Orbitals
- 6.7: Many-Electron Atoms
- 6.8: Electron Configurations
- 6.9: Electron Configurations & the Periodic Table
- 6.E: Electronic Structure of Atoms (Exercises)
- 6.S: Electronic Structure of Atoms (Summary)
- 7: Periodic Properties of the Elements
- 7.1: Development of the Periodic Table
- 7.2: Shielding and Effective Nuclear Charge
- 7.3: Sizes of Atoms and Ions
- 7.4: Ionization Energy
- 7.5: Electron Affinities
- 7.6: Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids
- 7.7: Group Trends for the Active Metals
- 7.8: Group Trends for Selected Nonmetals
- 7.E: Periodic Properties of the Elements (Exercises)
- 7.S: Periodic Properties of the Elements (Summary)
- 8: Basic Concepts of Chemical Bonding
- 8.1: Chemical Bonds, Lewis Symbols, and the Octet Rule
- 8.2: Ionic Bonding
- 8.3: Covalent Bonding
- 8.4: Bond Polarity and Electronegativity
- 8.5: Drawing Lewis Structures
- 8.6: Resonance Structures
- 8.7: Exceptions to the Octet Rule
- 8.8: Strength of Covalent Bonds
- 8.E: Basic Concepts of Chemical Bonding (Exercises)
- 8.S: Basic Concepts of Chemical Bonding (Summary)
- 9: Molecular Geometry and Bonding Theories
- 10: Gases
- 10.1: Characteristics of Gases
- 10.2: Pressure
- 10.3: The Gas Laws
- 10.4: The Ideal Gas Equation
- 10.5: Further Applications of the Ideal-Gas Equations
- 10.6: Gas Mixtures and Partial Pressures
- 10.7: Kinetic-Molecular Theory
- 10.8: Molecular Effusion and Diffusion
- 10.9: Real Gases - Deviations from Ideal Behavior
- 10.E: Exercises
- 10.S: Gases (Summary)
- 11: Liquids and Intermolecular Forces
- 11.1: A Molecular Comparison of Gases, Liquids, and Solids
- 11.2: Intermolecular Forces
- 11.3: Some Properties of Liquids
- 11.4: Phase Changes
- 11.5: Vapor Pressure
- 11.6: Phase Diagrams
- 11.7: Structure of Solids
- 11.8: Bonding in Solids
- 11.E: Liquids and Intermolecular Forces (Exercises)
- 11.S: Liquids and Intermolecular Forces (Summary)
- 12: Solids and Modern Materials
- 13: Properties of Solutions
- 14: Chemical Kinetics
- 15: Chemical Equilibrium
- 15.1: The Concept of Equilibrium
- 15.2: The Equilibrium Constant
- 15.3: Interpreting & Working with Equilibrium Constants
- 15.4: Heterogeneous Equilibria
- 15.5: Calculating Equilibrium Constants
- 15.6: Applications of Equilibrium Constants
- 15.7: Le Chatelier's Principle
- 15.E: Exercises
- 15.S: Chemical Equilibrium (Summary)
- 16: Acid–Base Equilibria
- 16.1: Acids and Bases: A Brief Review
- 16.2: Brønsted–Lowry Acids and Bases
- 16.3: The Autoionization of Water
- 16.4: The pH Scale
- 16.5: Strong Acids and Bases
- 16.6: Weak Acids
- 16.7: Weak Bases
- 16.8: Relationship Between Ka and Kb
- 16.9: Acid-Base Properties of Salt Solutions
- 16.10: Acid-Base Behavior and Chemical Structure
- 16.11: Lewis Acids and Bases
- 16.E: Acid–Base Equilibria (Exercises)
- 16.S: Acid–Base Equilibria (Summary)
- 17: Additional Aspects of Aqueous Equilibria
- 17.1: The Common-Ion Effect
- 17.2: Buffered Solutions
- 17.3: Acid-Base Titrations
- 17.4: Solubility Equilibria
- 17.5: Factors that Affect Solubility
- 17.6: Precipitation and Separation of Ions
- 17.7: Qualitative Analysis for Metallic Elements
- 17.E: Additional Aspects of Aqueous Equilibria (Exercises)
- 17.S: Additional Aspects of Aqueous Equilibria (Summary)
- 18: Chemistry of the Environment
- 19: Chemical Thermodynamics
- 19.1: Spontaneous Processes
- 19.2: Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics
- 19.3: The Molecular Interpretation of Entropy
- 19.4: Entropy Changes in Chemical Reactions
- 19.5: Gibbs Free Energy
- 19.6: Free Energy and Temperature
- 19.7: Free Energy and the Equilibrium Constant
- 19.E: Chemical Thermodynamics (Exercises)
- 20: Electrochemistry
- 20.1: Oxidation States & Redox Reactions
- 20.2: Balanced Oxidation-Reduction Equations
- 20.3: Voltaic Cells
- 20.4: Cell Potential Under Standard Conditions
- 20.5: Gibbs Energy and Redox Reactions
- 20.6: Cell Potential Under Nonstandard Conditions
- 20.7: Batteries and Fuel Cells
- 20.8: Corrosion
- 20.9: Electrolysis
- 20.E: Electrochemistry (Exercises)
- 21: Nuclear Chemistry
- 22: Chemistry of the Nonmetals
- 22.1: General Concepts: Periodic Trends and Reactions
- 22.2: Hydrogen
- 22.3: Group 18: Noble Gases
- 22.4: Group 17: The Halogens
- 22.5: Oxygen
- 22.6: The Other Group 16 Elements: S, Se, Te, and Po
- 22.7: Nitrogen
- 22.8: The Other Group 15 Elements: P, AS, Sb, and Bi
- 22.9: Carbon
- 22.10: The Other Group 14 Elements: Si, Ge, Sn, and Pb
- 22.11: Boron
- 22.E: Chemistry of the Nonmetals (Exercises)
- 22.S: Chemistry of the Nonmetals (Summary)
- 24: Chemistry of Coordination Chemistry
- 25: Chemistry of Life: Organic and Biological Chemistry
- 25.1: General Characteristics of Organic Molecules
- 25.2: Introduction to Hydrocarbons
- 25.3: Alkanes
- 25.4: Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
- 25.5: Functional Groups
- 25.6: Compounds with a Carbonyl Group
- 25.7: Chirality in Organic Chemistry
- 25.8: Introduction to Biochemistry
- 25.9: Proteins
- 25.10: Carbohydrates
- 25.11: Nucleic Acids
- 25.E: Organic and Biological Chemistry (Exercises)
- 25.S: Organic and Biological Chemistry (Summary)
- Map: A Molecular Approach (Tro)
- 1: Matter, Measurement, and Problem Solving
- 1.1: Atoms and Molecules
- 1.2: The Scientific Approach to Knowledge
- 1.3: The Classification of Matter
- 1.4: Physical and Chemical Changes and Properties
- 1.5: Energy: A Fundamental Part of Physical and Chemical Change
- 1.6: The Units of Measurement
- 1.7: The Reliability of a Measurement
- 1.8: Solving Chemical Problems
- 1.E: Matter, Measurement, and Problem Solving (Exercises)
- 2: Atoms and Elements
- 2.1: Brownian Motion - Evidence for Atoms
- 2.2: Early Ideas about the Building Blocks of Matter
- 2.3: Modern Atomic Theory and the Laws That Led to It
- 2.4: The Discovery of the Electron
- 2.5 The Structure of The Atom
- 2.6 Subatomic Particles: Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons in Atoms
- 2.7: Finding Patterns - The Periodic Law and the Periodic Table
- 2.8 Atomic Mass: The Average Mass of an Element’s Atoms
- 2.9: Molar Mass - Counting Atoms by Weighing Them
- 2.E: Atoms and Elements (Exercises)
- 3: Molecules, Compounds and Chemical Equations
- 3.1: Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Water
- 3.2: Chemical Bonds
- 3.3: Representing Compounds: Chemical Formulas and Molecular Models
- 3.4: An Atomic-Level Perspective of Elements and Compounds
- 3.5: Ionic Compounds: Formulas and Names
- 3.6: Molecular Compounds: Formulas and Names
- 3.7: Summary of Inorganic Nomenclature
- 3.9: Composition of Compounds
- 3.10: Determining a Chemical Formula from Experimental Data
- 3.11: Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations
- 3.12: Organic Compounds
- 3.E: Molecules, Compounds and Chemical Equations (Exercises)
- 4: Chemical Reactions and Aqueous Reactions
- 4.1: Global Warming and the Combustion of Fossil Fuels
- 4.2 Reaction Stoichiometry: How Much Carbon Dioxide?
- 4.3 Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield
- 4.4: Solution Concentration and Solution Stoichiomentry
- 4.5: Types of Aqueous Solutions and Solubility
- 4.6: Precipitation Reactions
- 4.7: Representing Aqueous Reactions: Molecular, Ionic, and Complete Ionic Equations
- 4.8: Acid-Base and Gas-Evolution Reactions
- 4.9: Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
- 5: Gases
- 5.1: Water from Wells: Atmospheric Pressure at Work
- 5.2: Pressure: The Result of Particle Collisions
- 5.3: The Simple Gas Laws: Boyle’s Law, Charles’s Law and Avogadro’s Law
- 5.4: The Ideal Gas Law
- 5.5: Applications of the Ideal Gas Law: Molar Volume, Density and Molar Mass of a Gas
- 5.6: Mixtures of Gases and Partial Pressures
- 5.7: Gases in Chemical Reactions: Stoichiometry Revisited
- 5.8: Kinetic Molecular Theory: A Model for Gases
- 5.9: Mean Free Path, Diffusion, and Effusion of Gases
- 5.10: Real Gases: The Effects of Size and Intermolecular Forces
- 5.E: Gases (Exercises)
- 6: Thermochemistry
- 6.1: Light the Furnace: The Nature of Energy and Its Transformations
- 6.2: The Nature and Types of Energy
- 6.4: Quantifying Heat and Work
- 6.3: The First Law of Thermodynamics
- 6.4: Constant Volume Calorimetry: Measuring ΔU for Chemical Reactions
- 6.5: Enthalpy: The Heat Evolved in a Chemical Reaction at Constant Pressure
- 6.7: Constant Pressure Calorimetry: Measuring ΔH for Chemical Reactions
- 6.7: Relationships Involving Enthalpy of Reactions
- 6.8: Enthalpies of Reaction from Standard Heats of Formation
- 6.9: Energy Use and The Environment
- 7: The Quantum-Mechanical Model of the Atom
- 8: Periodic Properties of the Elements
- 8.1: Nerve Signal Transmission
- 8.2: The Development of the Periodic Table
- 8.3: Electron Configurations: How Electrons Occupy Orbitals
- 8.4: Electron Configurations, Valence Electrons, and the Periodic Table
- 8.5: The Explanatory Power of the Quantum-Mechanical Model
- 8.6: Periodic Trends in the Size of Atoms and Effective Nuclear Charge
- 8.7: Ions- Configurations, Magnetic Properties, Radii, and Ionization Energy
- 8.8: Electron Affinities and Metallic Character
- 8.9: Examples of Periodic Chemical Behavior
- 8.E: Periodic Properties of the Elements (Exercises)
- 9: Chemical Bonding I: Lewis Structures & Determining Molecular Shapes
- 9.1: Bonding Models and AIDS Drugs
- 9.2: Types of Chemical Bonds
- 9.3: Representing Valance Electrons with Dots
- 9.4: Ionic Bonding
- 9.5: Covalent Bonding: Lewis Structure
- 9.6: Electronegativity and Bond Polarity
- 9.7: Lewis Structures
- 9.8: Resonance and Formal Charge
- 9.9: Exceptions to the Octet Rule
- 9.10: Bond Energies and Bond Lengths
- 9.11: Bonding in Metals
- 9.E: Chemical Bonding I (Exercises)
- 10: Chemical Bonding II: Valance Bond Theory and Molecular Orbital Theory
- 10.1: Artificial Sweeteners
- 10.2: VSEPR Theory - The Five Basic Shapes
- 10.3: VSPER Theory: The Effect of Lone Pairs
- 10.4: VSPER Theory - Predicting Molecular Geometries
- 10.5: Molecular Shape and Polarity
- 10.6: Valence Bond Theory: Orbital Overlap as a Chemical Bond
- 10.7: Valence Bond Theory: Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals
- 10.8: Molecular Orbital Theory: Electron Delocalization
- 11: Liquids, Solids, and Intermolecular Forces
- 11.1: Water in Zero Gravity
- 11.2: Solids, Liquids, and Gases: A Molecular Comparison
- 11.3: Intermolecular Forces: The Forces that Hold Condensed Phases Together
- 11.4: Intermolecular Forces in Action: Surface Tension, Viscosity, and Capillary Action
- 11.5: Vaporization and Vapor Pressure
- 11.6: Sublimation and Fusion
- 11.7: Heating Curve for Water
- 11.8: Phase Diagrams
- 11.9: Water - An Extraordinary Substance
- 12: Solids and Modern Materials
- 12.1: Discovery of Graphene
- 12.2: X-Ray Crystallography
- 12.3: Unit Cells and Basic Structures
- 12.4: The Fundamental Types of Crystalline Solids
- 12.5: The Structure of Ionic Solids
- 12.6: Network Covalent Atomic Solids: Carbon and Silicates
- 12.7: Ceramics, Cement, and Glass
- 12.8: Crystalline Solids: Band Theory
- 12.9: Polymers and Plastics
- 13: Solutions
- 13.1: Thirsty Solutions: Why You Should Not Drink Seawater
- 13.2: Types of Solutions and Solubility
- 13.3: Energetics of Solution Formation
- 13.4: Solution Equilibrium and Factors Affecting Solubility
- 13.5: Expressing Solution Concentration
- 13.6: Colligative Properties: Freezing Point Depression, Boiling Point Elevation, and Osmosis
- 13.7: The Colligative Properties of Strong Electrolyte Solutions
- 13.8: Colloids
- 13.E: Solutions (Exercises)
- 14: Chemical Kinetics
- 15: Chemical Equilibrium
- 15.1: Fetal Hemoglobin and Equilibrium
- 15.2: The Concept of Dynamic Equilibrium
- 15.3: The Equilibrium Constant (K)
- 15.4: Expressing the Equilibrium Constant in Terms of Pressure
- 15.5: Calculating the Equilibrium Constant From Measured Equilibrium Concentrations
- 15.5: Heterogenous Equilibria: Reactions Involving Solids and Liquids
- 15.7: The Reaction Quotient: Predicting the Direction of Change
- 15.8: Finding Equilibrium Concentrations
- 15.9: Le Châtelier’s Principle: How a System at Equilibrium Responds to Disturbances
- 16: Acids and Bases
- 16.1: Heartburn
- 16.2: The Nature of Acids and Bases
- 16.3: Definitions of Acids and Bases
- 16.4: Acid Strength and the Acid Dissociation Constant (Ka)
- 16.5: Autoionization of Water and pH
- 16.6: Finding the [H3O+] and pH of Strong and Weak Acid Solutions
- 16.7: Base Solutions
- 16.8: The Acid-Base Properties of Ions and Salts
- 16.9: Polyprotic Acids
- 16.10: Acid Strength and Molecular Structure
- 16.11: Lewis Acids and Bases
- 16.12: Acid rain
- 17: Aqueous Ionic Equilibrium
- 17.1: The Danger of Antifreeze
- 17.2: Buffers: Solutions That Resist pH Change
- 17.3: Buffer Effectiveness: Buffer Capacity and Buffer Range
- 17.4: Titrations and pH Curves
- 17.5: Solubility Equilibria and the Solubility Product Constant
- 17.6: Precipitation
- 17.7: Qualitative Chemical Analysis
- 17.8: Complex Ion Equilibria
- 17.E: Aqueous Ionic Equilibrium (Exercises)
- 18: Gibbs Energy and Thermodynamics
- 18.1: Nature’s Heat Tax: You Can’t Win and You Can’t Break Even
- 18.2: Spontaneous and Nonspontaneous Processes
- 18.3: Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics
- 18.4: Entropy Changes Associated with State Changes
- 18.5: Heat Transfer and Changes in the Entropy of the Surroundings
- 18.6: Gibbs Energy
- 18.7: Entropy Changes in Chemical Reactions
- 18.8: Gibbs Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions
- 18.9: Gibbs Energy Changers for Non-Standard States
- 18.10: Gibbs Energy and Equilibrium
- 19: Electrochemistry
- 19.1: Pulling the Plug on the Power Grid
- 19.2: Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Equations
- 19.3: Voltaic (or Galvanic) Cells: Generating Electricity from Spontaneous Chemical Reactions
- 19.4: Standard Reduction Potentials
- 19.5: Cell Potential, Gibbs Energy, and the Equilibrium Constant
- 19.6: Cell Potential and Concentration
- 19.7: Batteries: Using Chemistry to Generate Electricity
- 19.8: Electrolysis: Driving Non-spontaneous Chemical Reactions with Electricity
- 19.9: Corrosion: Undesirable Redox Reactions
- 20: Radioactivity and Nuclear Chemistry
- 20.1: Diagnosing Appendicitis
- 20.2: The Discovery of Radioactivity
- 20.3: Types of Radioactivity
- 20.4: The Valley of Stability: Predicting the Type of Radioactivity
- 20.5: Detecting Radioactivity
- 20.6: The Kinetics of Radioactive Decay and Radiometric Dating
- 20.7: The Discovery of Fission: The Atomic Bomb and Nuclear Power
- 20.8: Converting Mass to Energy: Mass Defect and Nuclear Binding Energy
- 20.9: Nuclear Fusion: The Power of the Sun
- 20.10: Nuclear Transmutation and Transuranium Elements
- 20.11: The Effects of Radiation on Life
- 20.12: Radioactivity in Medicine and Other Applications
- 21: Organic Chemistry
- 21.1: Fragrances and Odor
- 21.2: Carbon: Why It Is Unique
- 21.3: Hydrocarbons: Compounds Containing Only Carbon and Hydrocarbon
- 21.4: Alkanes: Saturated Hydrocarbons
- 21.5: Alkenes and Alkynes
- 21.6: Hydrocarbon Reactions
- 21.7: Aromatic Hydrocarbons
- 21.8: Functional Groups
- 21.9: Alcohols
- 21.10: Aldehydes and Ketones
- 21.11: Carboxylic Acids and Esters
- 21.12: Ethers
- 21.13: Amines
- 22: Biochemistry
- 23: Chemistry of the Nonmetals
- 23.1: Insulated Nanowires
- 23.2: The Main-Group Elements: Bonding and Properties
- 23.3: The Most Common Matter: Silicates
- 23.4: Boron and Its Amazing Structures
- 23.5: Carbon, Carbides, and Carbonates
- 23.6: Nitrogen and Phosphorus: Essential Elements for Life
- 23.7: Oxygen
- 23.8: Sulfur: A Dangerous and Useful Element
- 23.9: Halogens: Reactive Chemicals with High Electronegativity
- 23.E: Chemistry of the Nonmetals (Exercises)
- 24: Metals and Metallurgy
- 25: Transition Metals and Coordination Compounds
- 1: Matter, Measurement, and Problem Solving
- Book: ChemPRIME (Moore et al.)
- 1: Introduction - The Ambit of Chemistry
- 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Chemical Reactions
- 2.0: Prelude to Atoms and Reactions
- 2.1: Macroscopic Properties & Microscopic Models
- 2.2: The Atomic Theory
- 2.3: Macroscopic and Microscopic Views of a Chemical Reaction
- 2.4: Testing the Atomic Theory
- 2.5: Atomic Weights
- 2.6: The Amount of Substance: Moles
- 2.7: The Mole
- 2.8: The Amount of Substance
- 2.9: The Avogadro Constant
- 2.10: The Molar Mass
- 2.11: Formulas and Composition
- 2.12: Balancing Chemical Equations
- 3: Using Chemical Equations in Calculations
- 3.0: Prelude to Chemical Equations
- 3.1: Equations and Mass Relationships
- Cultural Connections: Berthollides: A Challenge to Chemical Stoichiometry
- Environment: Atom Efficiency and the 2006 Presidential Green Chemistry Award
- Everyday Life: Why Fats Don't Add Up on Food Nutrition Labels
- Food: Let's Cook!
- Foods: Metabolism of Dietary Sugar
- Lecture Demonstrations
- Sports, Physiology, and Health: Hydrogen Powered Bicycles "Run on Water"
- 3.2: The Limiting Reagent
- Cultural Connections: Anthropology and Protein Stoichiometry
- Environment: TSP, Ecological Stoichiometry, and Algal Blooms
- Everyday Life: Grilled Cheese Sandwiches and Omelets
- Everyday Life: Sodium Silicide Fueled Bicycles
- Foods: Protein Nutrition
- Forensics: Gunpowder Stoichiometry
- Geology: Using the Acid Test to Distinguish the Minerals in "Calomine"
- Lecture Demonstrations
- Physics: Rocket Propellants
- Sports, Physiology, & Health: Sodium Silicide Fueled Bicycles
- 3.3: Percent Yield
- 3.4: Analysis of Compounds
- 3.5: Thermochemistry
- 3.6: Energy
- 3.7: Thermochemical Equations
- 3.8: Hess' Law
- 3.9: Standard Enthalpies of Formation
- 3.10: Solution Concentrations
- 3.11: Diluting and Mixing Solutions
- 3.12: Titrations
- 4: The Structure of Atoms
- 4.0: Prelude to Atomic Structure
- 4.1: Groups of Related Elements
- 4.2: The Periodic Table
- 4.3: Valence
- 4.4: Exceptions to the Periodic Law
- 4.5: Implications of Periodicity for Atomic Theory
- 4.6: The Nuclear Atom
- 4.7: Radiation
- 4.8: The Electron
- 4.9: The Nucleus
- 4.10: Atomic Structure and Isotopes
- 4.11: Isotopes
- 4.12: Transmutation and Radioactivity
- 4.13: Average Atomic Weights
- 4.14: Measurement of Atomic Weights
- 5: The Electronic Structure of Atoms
- 5.0: Prelude to Electronic Structure
- 5.1: Electrons and Valence
- 5.2: Lewis Diagrams
- 5.3: The Wave Nature of the Electron
- 5.4: Wave Mechanics
- 5.5: The Uncertainty Principle
- 5.6: Electron Waves in the Hydrogen Atom
- 5.7: Orbitals
- 5.8: Quantum Numbers (Electronic)
- 5.9: Coulomb’s Law
- 5.10: Potential Energy
- 5.11: Electron Density and Potential Energy
- 5.12: Atoms Having More Than One Electron
- 5.13: Hydrogen, Helium, Lithium
- 5.14: Beryllium, Boron, Carbon
- 5.15: Electron Configurations
- 5.16: Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table
- 6: Chemical Bonding - Electron Pairs and Octets
- 6.0: Prelude to Chemical Bonding
- 6.1: Ionic Bonding
- 6.2: Energy and the Formation of Ions
- 6.3: The Ionic Crystal Lattice
- 6.4: Ions and Noble-Gas Electron Configurations
- 6.5: Ionization Energies
- 6.6: Ionization of Transition and Inner Transition Elements
- 6.7: Electron Affinities
- 6.8: Binary Ionic Compounds and Their Properties
- 6.09: The Octet Rule
- 6.10: Physical Properties
- 6.11: Chemical Properties
- 6.12: The Covalent Bond
- 6.13: Covalent Molecules and the Octet Rule
- 6.14: Writing Lewis Structures for Molecules
- 6.15: Examples of Lewis Structures
- 6.16: Polyatomic Ions
- 6.17: Ionic Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions
- 6.18: Atomic Sizes
- 6.19: Ionic Sizes
- 6.5: Periodic Variation of IE and EA
- 7: Further Aspects of Covalent Bonding
- 7.0: Prelude to Covalent Bonding
- 7.1: Exceptions to the Octet Rule
- 7.2: The Shapes of Molecules
- 7.3: Molecules with Lone Pairs
- 7.4: Multiple Bonds and Molecular Shapes
- 7.5: Hybrid Orbitals
- 7.6: Orbital Descriptions of Multiple Bonds
- 7.7: Sigma and Pi Bonds
- 7.8: Polarizability
- 7.9: Polar Covalent Bonds
- 7.10: Electronegativity
- 7.11: Polarity in Polyatomic Molecules
- 7.12: Formal Charge and Oxidation Numbers
- 7.13: Resonance
- 8: Properties of Organic Compounds
- 8.0: Prelude to Organic Compounds
- 8.1: Covalent Compounds and Intermolecular Forces
- 8.2: Dipole Forces
- 8.3: London Forces
- 8.4: Organic Compounds: Hydrocarbons
- 8.5: Alkanes
- 8.6: Cycloalkanes
- 8.7: Properties of Alkanes
- 8.8: Aromatic Hydrocarbons
- 8.9: Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
- 8.10: Hydrogen Bonding: Water
- 8.11: Ice and Water
- 8.12: Organic Compounds-Some Additional Classes
- 8.13: Alcohols
- 8.14: Ethers
- 8.15: Aldehydes and Ketones
- 8.16: Carboxylic Acids
- 8.17: Esters
- 8.18: Organic Nitrogen Compounds
- 8.19: Macromolecular Substances
- 8.20: Diamond and Graphite
- 8.21: Silicon Dioxide
- 8.22: Synthetic Macromolecules: Some Applied Organic Chemistry
- 8.23: Addition Polymers
- 8.24: Condensation Polymers
- 8.25: Cross-Linking
- 9: Gases
- 9.0: Prelude to Gases
- 9.1: Property of Gases
- 9.2: Pressure
- 9.3: Measurement of Pressure
- 9.4: Gas Laws
- 9.5: Avogadro's Law
- 9.6: Boyle's Law
- 9.7: Charles's Law
- 9.8: Gay-Lussac's Law
- 9.9: The Ideal Gas Equation
- 9.10: The Law of Combining Volumes
- 9.11: Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures
- 9.12: Kinetic Theory of Gases: Postulates of the Kinetic Theory
- 9.13: Kinetic Theory of Gases: The Total Molecular Kinetic Energy
- 9.14: Kinetic Theory of Gases: Molecular Speeds
- 9.15: Kinetic Theory of Gases - Graham's Law of Diffusion
- 9.16: Kinetic Theory of Gases: The Distribution of Molecular Speeds
- 9.17: Deviations from the Ideal Gas Law
- 10: Solids, Liquids and Solutions
- 10.0: Prelude to Solids, Liquids and Solutions
- 10.1: Solids
- 10.2: Lattices and Unit Cells
- 10.3: Crystal Systems
- 10.4: Closest-Packed Structures
- 10.5: Liquids
- 10.6: Viscosity
- 10.7: Amorphous Materials: Glasses
- 10.8: Phase Transitions
- 10.9: Enthalpy of Fusion and Enthalpy of Vaporization
- 10.10: Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium
- 10.11: Boiling Point
- 10.12: Critical Temperature and Pressure
- 10.13: Phase Diagrams
- 10.14: Solutions
- 10.15: Saturated and Supersaturated Solutions
- 10.16: Miscibility
- 10.17: Measuring the Composition of a Solution
- 10.18: Solubility and Molecular Structure
- 10.19: Ideal Solutions: Raoult's Law
- 10.20: The Separation of Mixtures
- 10.21: Distillation
- 10.22: Chromatography
- 10.23: Colligative Properties of Solutions
- 10.24: Boiling-Point Elevation and Freezing-Point Depression
- 10.25: Osmotic Pressure
- 10.26: Colloids
- 11: Reactions in Aqueous Solutions
- 11.0: Prelude to Aqueous Phase Reactions
- 11.1: Ions in Solution (Electrolytes)
- 11.2: Precipitation Reactions
- 11.3: Hydration of Ions
- 11.4: Hydrogen and Hydroxide Ions
- 11.5: Acid-Base Reactions
- 11.6: Acids
- 11.7: Bases
- 11.8: Strong Acids and Bases
- 11.9: Weak Acids
- 11.10: Weak Bases
- 11.11: Amphiprotic Species
- 11.12: Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs
- 11.13: Lewis Acids and Bases
- 11.14: Redox Reactions
- 11.15: Oxidation Numbers and Redox Reactions
- 11.16: Balancing Redox Equations
- 11.17: Common Oxidizing Agents
- 11.18: Common Reducing Agents
- 11.19: Substances Which Are Both Oxidizing and Reducing Agents
- 11.20: Redox Couples
- 12: Chemistry of the Representative Elements
- 13: Chemical Equilibrium
- 13.0: Prelude to Equilibria
- 13.1: The Equilibrium State
- 13.2: The Equilibrium Constant
- 13.3: The Law of Chemical Equilibrium
- 13.4: The Equilibrium Constant in Terms of Pressure
- 13.5: Calculating the Extent of a Reaction
- 13.6: Successive Approximation
- 13.7: Predicting the Direction of a Reaction
- 13.8: Le Chatelier’s Principle
- 13.9: The Effect of a Change in Pressure
- 13.10: The Effect of a Change in Temperature
- 13.11: Effect of Adding a Reactant or Product
- 13.12: The Molecular View of Equilibrium
- 14: Ionic Equilibria in Aqueous Solutions
- 14.0: Prelude to Ionization of Water
- 14.1: Ionization of Water
- 14.2: pH and pOH
- 14.3: The pH of Solutions of Weak Acids
- 14.4: The pH of Solutions of Weak Bases
- 14.5: Polyprotic Acids and Bases
- 14.6: Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs and pH
- 14.7: Buffer Solutions
- 14.8: Indicators
- 14.9: Titration Curves
- 14.10: The Solubility Product
- 14.11: The Common-Ion Effect
- 14.12: The Solubilities of Salts of Weak Acids
- 15: Thermodynamics: Atoms, Molecules and Energy
- 15.0: Prelude to Thermodynamics
- 15.1: Heat Capacities
- 15.2: Heat Capacity and Microscopic Changes
- 15.3: Internal Energy
- 15.4: Thermodynamic Terms and Conventions
- 15.5: Enthalpy
- 15.6: Measuring the Enthalpy Change
- 15.7: State Functions
- 15.8: Standard Pressure
- 15.9: Bond Enthalpies
- 15.10: Bond Enthalpies and Exothermic or Endothermic Reactions
- 15.11: Fossil Fuels and the Energy Crisis
- 15.12: Photosynthesis
- 16: Entropy and Spontaneous Reactions
- 16.0: Prelude to Spontaneity
- 16.1: Spontaneous Processes and Molecular Probability
- 16.2: Atoms, Molecules, and Probability
- 16.3: Rates of Spontaneous Processes
- 16.4: Thermodynamic Probability W and Entropy
- 16.5: Getting Acquainted with Entropy
- 16.6: Standard Molar Entropies
- 16.7: Dependence of S on Molecular Structure
- 16.8: Some Trends In Entropy Values
- 16.9: Entropy Changes in Gaseous Reactions
- 16.10: Entropy, Randomness, and Disorder
- 16.11: Measuring the Entropy
- 16.12: Including the Surroundings
- 16.13: The Free Energy
- 16.14: Maximum Useful Work
- 16.15: Equilibrium Constants Revisited
- 17: Electrochemical Cells
- 17.0: Prelude to Electrochemistry
- 17.1: Electrolysis
- 17.2: Electrolysis of Brine
- 17.3: Aluminum Production
- 17.4: Refining of Copper
- 17.5: Electroplating
- 17.6: Quantitative Aspects of Electrolysis
- 17.7: Galvanic Cells
- 17.8: Cell Notation and Conventions
- 17.9: Electromotive Force of Galvanic Cells
- 17.10: Storage Batteries
- 17.11: Fuel Cells
- 17.12: Galvanic Cells and Free Energy
- 17.13: Cells at Non-Standard Conditions
- 18: Chemical Kinetics
- 18.0: Prelude to Kinetics
- 18.1: The Rate of Reaction
- 18.2:The Rate Equation
- 18.3: Microscopic View of Chemical Reactions
- 18.4: Unimolecular Processes
- 18.5: Bimolecular Processes
- 18.6: Termolecular Processes
- 18.7:Reaction Mechanisms
- 18.8:Increasing the Rate of a Reaction
- 18.9:The Effect of Temperature
- 18.10: Catalysis
- 18.11: Heterogeneous Catalysis
- 19: Nuclear Chemistry
- 19.0: Prelude to Nuclear Chemistry
- 19.1: Naturally Occurring Radioactivity
- 19.2: Radioactive Series
- 19.3: Artificially Induced Nuclear Reactions
- 19.4: Bombardment with Positive Ions
- 19.5: Neutron Bombardment
- 19.6: Further Modes of Decay - Positron Emission and Electron Capture
- 19.7: Nuclear Stability
- 19.8: The Rate of Radioactive Decay
- 19.9: Instruments for Radiation Detection
- 19.10: Units of Radiation Dose
- 19.11: Uses of Artificial Isotopes
- 19.12: Mass-Energy Relationships
- 19.13: Nuclear Fission
- 19.14: Nuclear Power Plants
- 19.15: Breeder Reactors
- 19.16: Nuclear Fusion
- 20: Molecules in Living Systems
- 20.0: Prelude to Biochemistry
- 20.1: The Elements of Life
- 20.2: The Building Blocks of Biochemistry
- 20.3: Fats and Lipids
- 20.4: Nonpolar Lipids
- 20.5: Polar Lipids
- 20.6: Carbohydrates
- 20.7: Simple Sugars
- 20.8: Disaccharides
- 20.9: Polysaccharides
- 20.10: Proteins
- 20.11: Polypeptide Chains
- 20.12: The Amino Acids
- 20.13: Primary Protein Structure
- 20.14: Secondary Protein Structure
- 20.15: Higher-Order Structure
- 20.16: Nucleic Acids
- 20.17: Nucleic Acid Structure
- 20.18: Information Storage
- 20.19: The Double Helix
- 20.20: DNA Replication
- 20.21: Transcription and Translation
- 21: Spectra and Structure of Atoms and Molecules
- 21.0: Prelude to Spectroscopy
- 21.1: The Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation
- 21.2: Atomic Spectra and the Bohr Theory
- 21.3: Bohr Theory of the Atom
- 21.4: The Spectra of Molecules: Infrared
- 21.5: The Visible and Ultraviolet Spectra of Molecules: Molecular Orbitals
- 21.6: Molecular Orbitals
- 21.7: Delocalized Electrons
- 21.8: Conjugated Systems
- 22: Metals
- Book: Chemistry (OpenSTAX)
- 1: Essential Ideas of Chemistry
- 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions
- 3: Composition of Substances and Solutions
- 4: Stoichiometry of Chemical Reactions
- 5: Thermochemistry
- 6: Electronic Structure and Periodic Properties
- 7: Chemical Bonding and Molecular Geometry
- 8: Advanced Theories of Covalent Bonding
- 9: Gases
- 10: Liquids and Solids
- 11: Solutions and Colloids
- 12: Kinetics
- 13: Fundamental Equilibrium Concepts
- 14: Acid-Base Equilibria
- 15: Equilibria of Other Reaction Classes
- 16: Thermodynamics
- 17: Electrochemistry
- 18: Representative Metals, Metalloids, and Nonmetals
- 18.1: Periodicity
- 18.2: Occurrence and Preparation of the Representative Metals
- 18.3: Structure and General Properties of the Metalloids
- 18.4: Structure and General Properties of the Nonmetals
- 18.5: Occurrence, Preparation, and Compounds of Hydrogen
- 18.6: Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Carbonates
- 18.7: Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Nitrogen
- 18.8: Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Phosphorus
- 18.9: Occurrence, Preparation, and Compounds of Oxygen
- 18.10: Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Sulfur
- 18.11: Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Halogens
- 18.12: Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of the Noble Gases
- 18.E: Representative Metals, Metalloids, and Nonmetals (Exercises)
- 19: Transition Metals and Coordination Chemistry
- 20: Organic Chemistry
- 21: Nuclear Chemistry
- Appendices
- Composition of Commercial Acids and Bases
- Essential Mathematics
- Formation Constants for Complex Ions
- Fundamental Physical Constants
- Ionization Constants of Weak Acids
- Ionization Constants of Weak Bases
- Solubility Products
- Standard Electrode (Half-Cell) Potentials
- Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances
- The Periodic Table
- Units and Conversion Factors
- Water Properties
- Book: Chem1 (Lower)
- 1: Fundamentals of Science and Chemistry
- 2: Essential Background
- 3: Measuring Matter
- 4: The Basics of Chemistry
- 5: Atoms and the Periodic Table
- 6: Properties of Gases
- 7: Solids and Liquids
- 7.1: Matter Under the Microscope
- 7.2: Intermolecular Interactions
- 7.3: Hydrogen-Bonding and Water
- 7.4: Liquids and their Interfaces
- 7.5: Changes of State
- 7.6: Introduction to Crystals
- 7.7: Ionic and Ion-Derived Solids
- 7.8: Cubic Lattices and Close Packing
- 7.9: Polymers and Plastics
- 7.10: Colloids and their Uses
- 8: Solutions
- 8.1: Solutions and their Concentrations
- 8.2: Thermodynamics of Solutions
- 8.3: Colligative Properties: Raoult's Law
- 8.4: Colligative Properties: Boiling Point Elevation and Freezing Point Depression
- 8.5: Colligative Properties - Osmotic Pressure
- 8.6: Reverse Osmosis
- 8.7: Colligative Properties and Entropy
- 8.8: Ideal vs. Real Solutions
- 8.9: Distillation
- 8.9: Ions and Electrolytes
- 9: Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure
- 9.0: Three Views of Chemical Bonding
- 9.1: Molecules: Properties of Bonded Atoms
- 9.2: Models of Chemical Bonding
- 9.4: Polar Covalence
- 9.5: Molecular Geometry
- 9.6: The Hybrid Orbital Model
- 9.7: The Hybrid Orbital Model II
- 9.8: Molecular Orbital Theory
- 9.9: Bonding in Coordination Complexes
- 9.10: Bonding in Metals
- 9.11: Bonding in Semiconductors
- The Shared-Electron Covalent Bond
- 10: Fundamentals of Acids and Bases
- 11: Chemical Equilibrium
- 12: Solubility Equilibria
- 13: Acid-Base Equilibria
- 14: Thermochemistry
- 15: Thermodynamics of Chemical Equilibria
- 23.1: Energy Spreading Drives Spontaneous Change
- 23.2: Entropy Rules
- 23.3: The Second Law of Thermodynamics
- 23.4: Free Energy and the Gibbs Function
- 23.5: Thermodynamics of Mixing and Dilution
- 23.6: Free energy and Equilibrium
- 23.7: Some Applications of Entropy and Free Energy
- 23.8: Quantum states, Microstates, and Energy spreading in Reactions
- 16: Electrochemistry
- 24.1: Chemistry and Electricity
- 24.2: Galvanic cells and Electrodes
- 24.3: Cell potentials and Thermodynamics
- 24.4: The Nernst Equation
- 24.5: Applications of the Nernst Equation
- 24.6: Batteries and Fuel Cells
- 24.7: Timeline of Battery Development
- 24.8: Electrochemical Corrosion
- 24.9: Corrosion Gallery
- 24.10: Electrolytic Cells and Electrolysis
- 17: Chemical Kinetics and Dynamics
- Book: Concept Development Studies in Chemistry (Hutchinson)
- 1: Preface
- 2: The Atomic Molecular Theory
- 3: Relative Atomic Masses and Empirical Formulae
- Section 1: Foundation
- Section 2: Goals
- Section 3: Observation 1: Volume Relationships in Chemical Reactions (In Progress)
- Section 4: Determination of Atomic Weights for Gaseous Elements (In Progress)
- Section 5: Determination of Atomic Weights for Non-Gaseous Elements (In Progress)
- Section 6: Moles, Molecular Formulae and Stoichiometric Calculations
- Section 7: Review and Discussion Questions (In Progress)
- 4: The Structure of an Atom
- 5: Quantum Energy Levels In Atoms
- 6: Covalent Bonding and Electron Pair Sharing
- Section 1: Foundation
- Section 2: Goals
- Observation 1: Valence and the Periodic Table
- Section 4: Observation 2: Compounds of Carbon and Hydrogen
- Section 5: Observation 3: Compounds of Nitrogen, Oxygen, and the Halogens
- Section 6: Interpretation of Lewis Structures
- Section 7: Extensions of the Lewis Structure Model
- Section 8: Resonance Structures
- Section 9: Review and Discussion Questions
- 7: Molecular Geometry and Electron Domain Theory
- 8: Molecular Structure and Physical Properties
- 9: Chemical Bonding and Molecular Energy Levels
- 1: Preface to Concept Development Studies in Chemistry
- 2: The Atomic Molecular Theory
- 3: Relative Atomic Masses and Empirical Formulae
- 4: The Structure of an Atom
- 5: Quantum Energy Levels in Atoms
- 6: Covalent Bonding and Electron Pair Sharing
- 7: Molecular Geometry and Electron Domain Theory
- 8: Molecular Structure and Physical Properties
- 9: Chemical Bonding and Molecular Energy Levels
- 10: Energetics of Chemical Reactions
- 11: The Ideal Gas Law
- 12: The Kinetic Molecular Theory
- 13: Phase Equilibrium and Intermolecular Interactions
- 14: Reaction Equilibrium in the Gas Phase
- 15: Acid-Base Equilibrium
- 16: Reaction Rates
- 17: Equilibrium and the Second Law of Thermodynamics
- Book: CLUE (Cooper and Klymkowsky)
- 1: Atoms
- 1.1: What Do You Think You Know About Atoms?
- 1.2: Atomic Realities and Scientific Theories
- 1.3: Some History of Atomic Theory
- 1.4: Identifying and Isolating Elements
- 1.5: Evidence for Atoms
- 1.6: The Divisible Atom
- 1.7: Interactions Between Atoms and Molecules
- 1.8: Interactions Between Helium Atoms and Hydrogen Molecules
- Exercises
- 2: Electrons and Orbitals
- 3: Elements, Bonding, and Physical Properties
- 4: Heterogeneous Compounds
- 5: Systems Thinking
- 6: Solutions
- 7: A Field Guide to Chemical Reactions
- 8: How Far? How Fast?
- 9: Reaction Systems
- Appendix I: Spectroscopy
- 1: How we know what we know about the structure of matter?
- 2: Interactions of electromagnetic radiation and electrons in molecules
- 3: UV-Vis spectroscopy and chromophores - or why are carrots orange?
- 4: InfraRed spectroscopy – looking at molecular vibrations
- 5: Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (NMR)
- Calorimetry
- 1: Atoms
- Map: Principles of Modern Chemistry (Oxtoby et al.)
- UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO MODERN CHEMISTRY
- UNIT 2: CHEMICAL BONDING AND STRUCTURE
- 3: Chemical Bonding: The Classical Description
- 3.10: Oxidation Numbers
- 3.11: Inorganic Nomenclature
- 3.1: The Periodic Table
- 3.2: Forces and Potential Energy in Atoms
- 3.3: Ionization Energies and the Shell Model of the Atom
- 3.4: Electronegativity: The Tendency of Atoms to Attract Electrons
- 3.5: Forces and Potential Energy in Molecules: Formation of Chemical Bonds
- 3.6: Ionic Bonding
- 3.7: Covalent and Polar Covalent Bonding
- 3.8: Lewis Diagrams for Molecules
- 3.9: The Shapes of Molecules: Valence Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion Theory
- 4: Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
- 5: Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Structure
- 6: Quantum Mechanics and Molecular Structure
- 7: Bonding in Organic Molecules
- 8: Bonding in Transition Metal Compounds and Coordination Complexes
- 8.1: Chemistry of the Transition Metals
- 8.2: Bonding in Simple Molecules That Contain Transition Metals
- 8.3: Introduction to Coordination Chemistry
- 8.4: Structures of Coordination Complexes
- 8.5: Crystal Field Theory: Optical and Magnetic Properties
- 8.6: Optical Properties and the Spectrochemical Series
- 8.7: Bonding in Coordination Complexes
- 3: Chemical Bonding: The Classical Description
- UNIT 3: THE STATES OF MATTER
- 9: The Gaseous State
- 10: Solids, Liquids, and Phase Transitions
- 11: Solutions
- 11.1: Composition of Solutions
- 11.2: Nature of Dissolved Species
- 11.3: Reaction Stoichiometry in Solutions: Acid-Base Titrations
- 11.4: Reaction Stoichiometry in Solutions: Oxidation-Reduction Titrations
- 11.5: Phase Equilibrium in Solutions - Nonvolatile Solutes
- 11.6: Phase Equilibrium in Solutions - Volatile Solutes
- 11.7: Colloidal Suspensions
- 11.E: Solutions (Exercises)
- UNIT 4: EQUILIBRIUM IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS
- 12: Thermodynamic Processes and Thermochemistry
- 12.1: Systems, States, and Processes
- 12.2: The First Law of Thermodynamics: Internal Energy, Work, and Heat
- 12.3: Heat Capacity, Enthalpy, and Calorimetry
- 12.4: Illustrations of the First Law of Thermodynamics in Ideal Gas Processes
- 12.5: Thermochemistry
- 12.6: Reversible Processes in Ideal Gases
- 12.E: Thermodynamic Processes (Exercises)
- 13: Spontaneous Processes and Thermodynamic Equilibrium
- 13.1: The Nature of Spontaneous Processes
- 13.2: Entropy and Spontaneity - A Molecular Statistical Interpretation
- 13.3: Entropy and Heat - Experimental Basis of the Second Law of Thermodynamics
- 13.4: Entropy Changes in Reversible Processes
- 13.5: Entropy Changes and Spontaneity
- 13.6: The Third Law of Thermodynamics
- 13.7: The Gibbs Free Energy
- 13.8: Carnot Cycle, Efficiency, and Entropy
- 13.E: Spontaneous Processes (Exercises)
- 14: Chemical Equilibrium
- 14.1: The Nature of Chemical Equilibrium
- 14.2: The Empirical Law of Mass Action
- 14.3: Thermodynamic Description of the Equilibrium State
- 14.4: The Law of Mass Action for Related and Simultaneous Equilibria
- 14.5: Equilibrium Calculations for Gas-Phase and Heterogenous Reactions
- 14.6: Reaction Directions (Empirical Explanation)
- 14.7: Reaction Directions (Thermodynamic Explanation)
- 14.8: Distribution of a Single Species between Immiscible Phases: Extraction and Separation Processes
- 14.E: Chemical Equilibria (Exercises)
- 15: Acid–Base Equilibria
- 15.1: Classifications of Acids and Bases
- 15.2: Properties of Acids and Bases in Aqueous Solutions
- 15.3: Acid and Base Strength
- 15.4: Equilibria Involving Weak Acids and Bases
- 15.5: Buffer Solutions
- 15.6: Acid-Base Titration Curves
- 15.7: Polyprotic Acids
- 15.8: Organic Acids and Bases - Structure and Reactivity
- 15.9: A Deeper Look: Exact Treatment of Acid-Base Equilibria
- 15.E: Acid-Base Equilibria (Exercises)
- 16: Solubility and Precipitation Equilibria
- 16.1: The Nature of Solubility Equilibria
- 16.2: Ionic Equilibria between Solids and Solutions
- 16.3: Precipitation and the Solubility Product
- 16.4: The Effects of pH on Solubility
- 16.5: Complex Ions and Solubility
- 16.6: A Deeper Look: Selective Precipitation of Ions
- 16.E: Solubility and Precipitation (Exercises)
- 17: Electrochemistry
- 12: Thermodynamic Processes and Thermochemistry
- UNIT 5: RATES OF CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROCESSES
- 18: Chemical Kinetics
- 19: Nuclear Chemistry
- 20: Molecular Spectroscopy and Photochemistry
- 20.1: General Aspects of Molecular Spectroscopy
- 20.2: Vibrations and Rotations of Molecules: Infrared and Microwave Spectroscopy
- 20.3: Excited Electronic States: Electronic Spectroscopy of Molecules
- 20.4: Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
- 20.5: Introduction to Atmospheric Photochemistry
- 20.6: Photosynthesis
- UNIT 6: MATERIALS
- Map: General Chemistry (Petrucci et al.)
- 1: Matter- Its Properties and Measurement
- 2: Atoms and The Atomic Theory
- 2.1: Early Chemical Discoveries and the Atomic Theory
- 2.2: Electrons and Other Discoveries in Atomic Physics
- 2.3: The Nuclear Atom
- 2.4: Chemical Elements
- 2.5: Atomic Mass
- 2.6: Introduction to the Periodic Table
- 2.7: The Concept of Mole and the Avogadro Constant
- 2.8: Using the Mole Concept in Calculations
- Homework Problems
- 3: Chemical Compounds
- 3.1: Types of Chemical Compounds and their Formulas
- 3.2: The Mole Concept and Chemical Compounds
- 3.3: Composition of Chemical Compounds
- 3.4: Oxidation States: A Useful Tool in Describing Chemical Compounds
- 3.5: Importance of Nomenclature
- 3.6: Names and Formulas of Inorganic Compounds
- 3.7: Names of Formulas of Organic Compounds
- 3.E: Homework Problems
- 4: Chemical Reactions
- 5: Introduction to Reactions in Aqueous Solutions
- 6: Gases
- 6.1: Properties of Gases: Gas Pressure
- 6.2: The Simple Gas Laws
- 6.3: Combining the Gas Laws: The Ideal Gas Equation and the General Gas Equation
- 6.4: Applications of the Ideal Gas Equation
- 6.5: Gases in Chemical Reactions
- 6.6: Mixtures of Gases
- 6.7: Kinetic-Molecular Theory of Gases
- 6.8: Gas Properties Relating to the Kinetic-Molecular Theory
- 6.9: Non-ideal (Real) Gases
- 7: Thermochemistry
- 8: Electrons in Atoms
- 8.1: Electromagnetic Radiation
- 8.2: Atomic Spectra
- 8.3: Quantum Theory
- 8.4: The Bohr Atom
- 8.5: Two Ideas Leading to a New Quantum Mechanics
- 8.6: Wave Mechanics
- 8.7: Quantum Numbers and Electron Orbitals
- 8.8: Interpreting and Representing the Orbitals of the Hydrogen Atom
- 8.9: Electron Spin: A Fourth Quantum Number
- 8.10: Multielectron Atoms
- 8.11: Electron Configurations
- 8.12: Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table
- 9: The Periodic Table and Some Atomic Properties
- 10: Chemical Bonding I: Basic Concepts
- 11: Chemical Bonding II: Additional Aspects
- 11.1: What a Bonding Theory Should Do
- 11.2: Introduction to the Valence-Bond Method
- 11.3: Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals
- 11.4: Multiple Covalent Bonds
- 11.5: Molecular Orbital Theory
- 11.6: Delocalized Electrons: Bonding in the Benzene Molecule
- 11.7: Bonding in Metals
- 11.8: Some Unresolved Issues
- 11.E: Chemical Bonding II: Additional Aspects (Exercises)
- 12: Intermolecular Forces: Liquids And Solids
- 13: Solutions and their Physical Properties
- 13.1: Types of Solutions - Some Terminology
- 13.2: Solution Concentration
- 13.3: Intermolecular Forces and the Solution Process
- 13.4: Solution Formation and Equilibrium
- 13.5: Solubilities of Gases
- 13.6: Vapor Pressures of Solutions
- 13.7: Osmotic Pressure
- 13.8: Freezing-Point Depression and Boiling-Point Elevation of Nonelectrolyte Solutions
- 13.9: Solutions of Electrolytes
- 13.10: Colloidal Mixtures
- 14: Chemical Kinetics
- 14.1: The Rate of a Chemical Reaction
- 14.2: Measuring Reaction Rates
- 14.3: Effect of Concentration on Reaction Rates: The Rate Law
- 14.4: Zero-Order Reactions
- 14.5: First-Order Reactions
- 14.6: Second-Order Reactions
- 14.7: Reaction Kinetics: A Summary
- 14.8: Theoretical Models for Chemical Kinetics
- 14.9: The Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rates
- 14.10: Reaction Mechanisms
- 14.11: Catalysis
- 14.E: Exercises
- 15: Principles of Chemical Equilibrium
- 15.1: Dynamic Equilibrium
- 15.2: The Equilibrium Constant Expression
- 15.3: Relationships Involving Equilibrium Constants
- 15.4: The Magnitude of an Equilibrium Constant
- 15.5: The Reaction Quotient, Q: Predicting The Direction of Net Change
- 15.6: Altering Equilibrium Conditions: Le Châtelier’s Principle
- 15.7: Equilibrium Calculations: Some Illustrative Examples
- 16: Acids and Bases
- 16.1: Arrhenius Theory: A Brief Review
- 16.2: Brønsted-Lowry Theory of Acids and Bases
- 16.3: Self-Ionization of Water and the pH Scale
- 16.4: Strong Acids and Strong Bases
- 16.5: Weak Acids and Weak Bases
- 16.6: Polyprotic Acids
- 16.7: Ions as Acids and Bases
- 16.8: Molecular Structure and Acid-Base Behavior
- 16.9: Lewis Acids and Bases
- 16.E: Exercises
- 17: Additional Aspects of Acid-Base Equilibria
- 18: Solubility and Complex-Ion Equilibria
- 18.1: Solubility Product Constant, Ksp
- 18.2: Relationship Between Solubility and Ksp
- 18.3: Common-Ion Effect in Solubility Equilibria
- 18.4: Limitations of the \(K_{sp}\) Concept
- 18.5: Criteria for Precipitation and its Completeness
- 18.6: Fractional Precipitation
- 18.7: Solubility and pH
- 18.8: Equilibria Involving Complex Ions
- 18.9: Qualitative Cation Analysis
- 19: Spontaneous Change: Entropy and Gibbs Energy
- 19.1: Spontaneity: The Meaning of Spontaneous Change
- 19.2: The Concept of Entropy
- 19.3: Evaluating Entropy and Entropy Changes
- 19.4: Criteria for Spontaneous Change: The Second Law of Thermodynamics
- 19.5: Standard Gibbs Energy Change, ΔG°
- 19.6: Gibbs Energy Change and Equilibrium
- 19.7: ΔG° and K as Functions of Temperature
- 19.8: Coupled Reactions
- 19.E: Chemical Thermodynamics (Exercises)
- 20: Electrochemistry
- 20.1: Electrode Potentials and their Measurement
- 20.2: Standard Electrode Potentials
- 20.3: Ecell, ΔG, and K
- 20.4: Ecell as a Function of Concentrations
- 20.5: Batteries: Producing Electricity Through Chemical Reactions
- 20.6: Corrosion: Unwanted Voltaic Cells
- 20.7: Electrolysis: Causing Nonspontaneous Reactions to Occur
- 20.8: Industrial Electrolysis Processes
- 20.E: Exercises
- 21: Chemistry of The Main-Group Elements I
- 22: Chemistry of The Main-Group Elements II
- 23: The Transition Elements
- 23.1: General Properties of Transition Metals
- 23.2: Principles of Extractive Metallurgy
- 23.3: Metallurgy of Iron and Steel
- 23.4: First-Row Transition Metal Elements: Scandium to Manganese
- 23.5: The Iron Triad: Iron, Cobalt, and Nickel
- 23.6: Group 11: Copper, Silver, and Gold
- 23.7: Group 12: Zinc, Cadmium, and Mercury
- 23.8: Lanthanides
- 23.9: High Temperature Superconductors
- 23.E: Exercises
- 24: Complex Ions and Coordination Compounds
- 24.1: Werner’s Theory of Coordination Compounds
- 24.2: Ligands
- 24.3: Complex Ion Nomenclature
- 24.4: Isomerism in Coordination Complexes
- 24.5: Bonding in Complex Ions: Crystal Field Theory
- 24.6: Magnetic Properties of Coordination Compounds and Crystal Field Theory
- 24.7: Color and the Colors of Complexes
- 24.8: Aspects of Complex-Ion Equilibria
- 24.9: Acid-Base Reactions of Complex Ions
- 24.10: Some Kinetic Considerations
- 24.E: Exercises
- 25: Nuclear Chemistry
- 25.1: Radioactivity
- 25.2: Naturally Occurring Radioactive Isotopes
- 25.3: Nuclear Reactions and Artificially Induced Radioactivity
- 25.4: Transuranium Elements
- 25.5: Rate of Radioactive Decay
- 25.6: Energetics of Nuclear Reactions
- 25.7: Nuclear Stability
- 25.8: Nuclear Fission
- 25.9: Nuclear Fusion
- 25.10: Effect of Radiation on Matter
- 25.11: Applications of Radioisotopes
- 25.E: Exercises
- 26: Structure of Organic Compounds
- 27: Reactions of Organic Compounds
- 27.1: Organic Reactions: An Introduction
- 27.2: Introduction to Substitution Reactions
- 27.3: Introduction to Elimination Reactions
- 27.4: Reactions of Alcohols
- 27.5: Introduction to Addition Reactions: Reactions of Alkenes
- 27.6: Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution
- 27.7: Reactions of Alkanes
- 27.8: Polymers and Polymerization Reactions
- 27.9: Synthesis of Organic Compounds
- 28: Chemistry of The Living State
- Map: General Chemistry - An Atoms First Approach (Halpern)
- Map: Chemistry - Atoms First (OpenSTAX)
- 1: Essential Ideas of Chemistry
- 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions
- 3: Electronic Structure and Periodic Properties
- 4: Chemical Bonding and Molecular Geometry
- 5: Advanced Theories of Covalent Bonding
- 6: Composition of Substances and Solutions
- 7: Stoichiometry of Chemical Reactions
- 8: Gases
- 9: Thermochemistry
- 10: Liquids and Solids
- 11: Solutions and Colloids
- 12: Thermodynamics
- 13: Fundamental Equilibrium Concepts
- 14: Acid-Base Equilibria
- 15: Equilibria of Other Reaction Classes
- 16: Electrochemistry
- 17: Kinetics
- 18: Representative Metals, Metalloids, and Nonmetals
- 18.1: Periodicity
- 18.2: Occurrence and Preparation of the Representative Metals
- 18.3: Structure and General Properties of the Metalloids
- 18.4: Structure and General Properties of the Nonmetals
- 18.5: Occurrence, Preparation, and Compounds of Hydrogen
- 18.6: Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Carbonates
- 18.7: Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Nitrogen
- 18.8: Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Phosphorus
- 18.9: Occurrence, Preparation, and Compounds of Oxygen
- 18.10: Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Sulfur
- 18.11: Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Halogens
- 18.12: Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of the Noble Gases
- 18.E: Representative Metals, Metalloids, and Nonmetals (Exercises)
- 19: Transition Metals and Coordination Chemistry
- 20: Nuclear Chemistry
- 21: Organic Chemistry
- Appendices
- Composition of Commercial Acids and Bases
- Essential Mathematics
- Formation Constants for Complex Ions
- Fundamental Physical Constants
- Ionization Constants of Weak Acids
- Ionization Constants of Weak Bases
- Solubility Products
- Standard Electrode (Half-Cell) Potentials
- Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances
- The Periodic Table
- Units and Conversion Factors
- Water Properties
- Map: Chemistry - The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change (Silberberg)
- 1: Keys to the Study of Chemistry
- 2: The Components of Matter
- 2.2: Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures - An Atomic Overview
- 2.2: The Observations That Led to an Atomic View of Matter
- 2.4: The Observations That Led to the Nuclear Atom Model
- 2.5: The Atomic Theory Today
- 2.6: Elements - A First Look at the Periodic Table
- 2.7: Compounds - Introduction to Bonding
- 2.8: Compounds - Formulas, Names, and Masses
- 2.9: Mixtures - Classification and Separation
- 2.E: The Components of Matter (Exercises)
- 3: Stoichiometry of Formulas and Equation
- 4: Three Major Classes of Chemical Reactions
- 4.1: Solution Concentration and the Role of Water as a Solvent
- 4.2: Writing Equations for Aqueous Ionic Reactions
- 4.3: Precipitation Reactions
- 4.4: Acid-Base Reactions
- 4.5: Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions
- 4.6: Elements in Redox Reactions
- 4.7: The Reversibility of Reactions and the Equilibrium State
- 4.E: Three Major Classes of Chemical Reactions (Exercises)
- 5: Gases and the Kinetic-Molecular Theory
- 5.1: An Overview of the Physical States of Matter
- 5.2: Gas Pressure and Its Measurement
- 5.3: The Gas Laws and Their Experimental Foundations
- 5.4: Rearrangements of the Ideal Gas Law
- 5.5: The Kinetic-Molecular Theory - A Model for Gas Behavior
- 5.6: Real Gases - Deviations from Ideal Behavior
- 5.E: Gases and the Kinetic-Molecular Theory (Exercises)
- 6: Thermochemistry - Energy Flow and Chemical Change
- 6.1: Forms of Energy and Their Interconversion
- 6.2: Enthalpy - Changes at Constant Pressure
- 6.3: Calorimetry - Measuring the Heat of a Chemical or Physical Change
- 6.4: Stoichiometry of Thermochemical Equations
- 6.5: Hess’s Law - Finding ΔH of Any Reaction
- 6.6: Standard Enthalpies of Reaction
- 6.E: Thermochemistry - Energy Flow and Chemical Change
- 7: Quantum Theory and Atomic Structure
- 8: Electron Configuration and Chemical Periodicity
- 9: Models of Chemical Bonding
- 10: The Shapes of Molecules
- 11: Theories of Covalent Bonding
- 12: Intermolecular Forces: Liquids, Solids, and Phase Change
- 12.1: An Overview of Physical States and Phase Changes
- 12.2: Quantitative Aspects of Phase Changes
- 12.4: Properties of the Liquid State
- 12.4: Types of Intermolecular Forces
- 12.5: The Uniqueness of Water
- 12.6: The Solid State: Structure, Properties, and Bonding
- 12.7: Advanced Materials
- 12.7: Advanced Materials
- 12.E: Intermolecular Forces - Liquids, Solids, and Phase Changes (Exercises)
- 13: The Properties of Mixtures: Solutions and Colloids
- 13.1: Types of Solutions - Intermolecular Forces and Solubility
- 13.2: Intermolecular Forces and Biological Macromolecules
- 13.3: Why Substances Dissolve - Breaking Down the Solution Process
- 13.4: Solubility as an Equilibrium Process
- 13.5: Concentration Terms
- 13.6: Colligative Properties of Solutions
- 13.7: The Structure and Properties of Colloids
- 13.E: The Properties of Mixtures: Solutions and Colloids (Exercises)
- 14: Periodic Patterns in the Main-Group Elements
- 14.1: Hydrogen - the Simplest Atom
- 14.2: Trends Across the Periodic Table - The Period 2 Elements
- 14.3: Group 2 - The Alkali Metals
- 14.4: Group 2 - The Alkaline Earth Metals
- 14.5: Group 13 - The Boron Family
- 14.6: Group 14 - The Carbon Family
- 14.7: Group 15 - The Nitrogen Family
- 14.8: Group 16 - The The Oxygen Family
- 14.9: Group 17 - The Halogens
- 14.10: Group 18 - The Noble Gases
- 14.E: Periodic Patterns in the Main-Group Elements (Exercises)
- 15: Organic Compounds and the Atomic Properties of Carbon
- 15.1: The Special Nature of Carbon and the Characteristics of Organic Molecules
- 15.2: The Structures and Classes of Hydrocarbons
- 15.3: Some Important Classes of Organic Reactions
- 15.4: Properties and Reactivities of Common Functional Groups
- 15.5: The Monomer-Polymer Theme I - Synthetic Macromolecules
- 15.6: The Monomer-Polymer Theme II - Biological Macromolecules
- 15.E: Organic Compounds and the Atomic Properties of Carbon (Exercises)
- 16: Kinetics: Rates and Mechanisms of Chemical Reactions
- 16.1: Focusing on Reaction Rate
- 16.2: Expressing the Reaction Rate
- 16.3: The Rate Law and Its Components
- 16.4: Integrated Rate Laws - Concentration Changes over Time
- 16.5: Theories of Chemical Kinetics
- 16.6: Reaction Mechanisms - The Steps from Reactant to Product
- 16.7: Catalysis - Speeding Up a Reaction
- 16.E: Kinetics: Rates and Mechanisms of Chemical Reactions (Exercises)
- 17: Equilibrium - The Extent of Chemical Reactions
- 17.1: The Equilibrium State and the Equilibrium Constant
- 17.2: The Reaction Quotient and the Equilibrium Constant
- 17.3: Expressing Equilibria with Pressure Terms - Relation Between Kc and Kp
- 17.4: Comparing Q and K to Determine Reaction Direction
- 17.5: How to Solve Equilibrium Problems
- 17.6: Reaction Conditions and Equilibrium - Le Châtelier’s Principle
- 17.E: Equilibrium - The Extent of Chemical Reactions (Exercises)
- 18: Acid-Base Equilibria
- 18.1: Acids and Bases in Water
- 18.2: Autoionization of Water and the pH Scale
- 18.3: Proton Transfer and the Brønsted-Lowry Acid-Base Definition
- 18.4: Solving Problems Involving Weak-Acid Equilibria
- 18.5: Molecular Properties and Acid Strength
- 18.6: Weak Bases and Their Relation to Weak Acids
- 18.7: Acid-Base Properties of Salt Solutions
- 18.8: Generalizing the Brønsted-Lowry Concept - The Leveling Effect
- 18.9: Electron-Pair Donation and the Lewis Acid-Base Definition
- 18.E: Acid-Base Equilibria (Exercises)
- 19: Ionic Equilibria in Aqueous Systems
/08Properties_of_Organic_Compounds_.../8.03%3A_London_Forces/%3Cpic%3EChapter_8_page_3.jpg){kind=link}
/08Properties_of_Organic_Compounds_.../8.03%3A_London_Forces/Atomic_sizes_on_periodic_table.jpg){kind=link}
/08Properties_of_Organic_Compounds_.../8.03%3A_London_Forces/Ionization_Energies/%3Cpic%3E_IonizationEnergyAtomicWeight.PNG){kind=link}
/08Properties_of_Organic_Compounds_.../8.03%3A_London_Forces/Ionization_Energies_and_Electron_Affinities/Electron_Affinities/%3Cpic%3E_Ionization_Energies_and_Electron_Affinities.jpg){kind=link}
/08Properties_of_Organic_Compounds_.../8.03%3A_London_Forces/Polarizability_on_London_Forces.jpg){kind=link}
/08Properties_of_Organic_Compounds_.../8.04%3A_Organic_Compounds%3A_Hydrocarbons/Crude_Oil_Distillation.jpg){kind=link}
/08Properties_of_Organic_Compounds_.../8.07%3A_Properties_of_Alkanes/%3Cpic%3E_boiling_points.jpg){kind=link}
/08Properties_of_Organic_Compounds_.../8.09%3A_Unsaturated_Hydrocarbons/Chapter_7_page_19-2.jpg){kind=link}
/08Properties_of_Organic_Compounds_.../8.10%3A_Hydrogen_Bonding%3A_Water/H-Bonding_Between_2_HF_Molecules.jpg){kind=link}
/08Properties_of_Organic_Compounds_.../8.10%3A_Hydrogen_Bonding%3A_Water/Nonmetal_hydride_bp.jpg){kind=link}
/08Properties_of_Organic_Compounds_.../8.11%3A_Ice_and_Water/%3Cpic%3E_Ice%3B_a_hexagonal_crystal.jpg){kind=link}
/18Chemical_Kinetics/18.09%3AThe_Effect_of_Temperature/%3Cpic%3E_Arrhenius_Plot_of_the_Decomposition_of_HI.jpg){kind=link}
/18Chemical_Kinetics/18.10%3A_Catalysis/%3Cpic%3EEnergy_Profile_For_The_Cis-Trans_Conversion_of_2-butene.jpg){kind=link}