13: Solutions
- Page ID
- 47427
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\(\newcommand{\avec}{\mathbf a}\) \(\newcommand{\bvec}{\mathbf b}\) \(\newcommand{\cvec}{\mathbf c}\) \(\newcommand{\dvec}{\mathbf d}\) \(\newcommand{\dtil}{\widetilde{\mathbf d}}\) \(\newcommand{\evec}{\mathbf e}\) \(\newcommand{\fvec}{\mathbf f}\) \(\newcommand{\nvec}{\mathbf n}\) \(\newcommand{\pvec}{\mathbf p}\) \(\newcommand{\qvec}{\mathbf q}\) \(\newcommand{\svec}{\mathbf s}\) \(\newcommand{\tvec}{\mathbf t}\) \(\newcommand{\uvec}{\mathbf u}\) \(\newcommand{\vvec}{\mathbf v}\) \(\newcommand{\wvec}{\mathbf w}\) \(\newcommand{\xvec}{\mathbf x}\) \(\newcommand{\yvec}{\mathbf y}\) \(\newcommand{\zvec}{\mathbf z}\) \(\newcommand{\rvec}{\mathbf r}\) \(\newcommand{\mvec}{\mathbf m}\) \(\newcommand{\zerovec}{\mathbf 0}\) \(\newcommand{\onevec}{\mathbf 1}\) \(\newcommand{\real}{\mathbb R}\) \(\newcommand{\twovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\ctwovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\threevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cthreevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\mattwo}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{rr}#1 \amp #2 \\ #3 \amp #4 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\laspan}[1]{\text{Span}\{#1\}}\) \(\newcommand{\bcal}{\cal B}\) \(\newcommand{\ccal}{\cal C}\) \(\newcommand{\scal}{\cal S}\) \(\newcommand{\wcal}{\cal W}\) \(\newcommand{\ecal}{\cal E}\) \(\newcommand{\coords}[2]{\left\{#1\right\}_{#2}}\) \(\newcommand{\gray}[1]{\color{gray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\lgray}[1]{\color{lightgray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\rank}{\operatorname{rank}}\) \(\newcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\col}{\text{Col}}\) \(\renewcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\nul}{\text{Nul}}\) \(\newcommand{\var}{\text{Var}}\) \(\newcommand{\corr}{\text{corr}}\) \(\newcommand{\len}[1]{\left|#1\right|}\) \(\newcommand{\bbar}{\overline{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bhat}{\widehat{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bperp}{\bvec^\perp}\) \(\newcommand{\xhat}{\widehat{\xvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\vhat}{\widehat{\vvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\uhat}{\widehat{\uvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\what}{\widehat{\wvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\Sighat}{\widehat{\Sigma}}\) \(\newcommand{\lt}{<}\) \(\newcommand{\gt}{>}\) \(\newcommand{\amp}{&}\) \(\definecolor{fillinmathshade}{gray}{0.9}\)Solutions play a very important role in many biological, laboratory, and industrial applications of chemistry. Of particular importance are solutions involving substances dissolved in water, or aqueous solutions. Solutions represent equilibrium systems, and the lessons learned in the last chapter will be of particular importance again. Quantitative measurements of solutions are another key component of this chapter. Solutions can involve all physical states—gases dissolved in gases (the air around us), solids dissolved in solids (metal alloys), and liquids dissolved in solids (amalgams—liquid mercury dissolved in another metal such as silver, tin or copper). This chapter is almost exclusively concerned with aqueous solutions, substances dissolved in water.
- 13.1: Tragedy in Cameroon
- This page discusses the tragic 1986 incident at Lake Nyos in Cameroon, where a carbon dioxide release suffocated over 1700 people. It explains the lake's saturation with CO2 from a magma pocket and the subsequent gas turnover. The event spurred investigations into other African lakes, revealing similar risks, particularly at Lake Kivu.
- 13.2: Solutions - Homogeneous Mixtures
- This page covers solutions, defining solvents and solutes and illustrating the "like dissolves like" principle regarding polarity. It explains how polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents and nonpolar solutes in nonpolar solvents, emphasizing the role of intermolecular forces. Various examples are provided to demonstrate solubility based on polarity relative to water and other solvents.
- 13.3: Solutions of Solids Dissolved in Water- How to Make Rock Candy
- This page provides an overview of solutions, defining electrolytes and nonelectrolytes, highlighting water's role as a universal solvent. It discusses solubility, saturation, and how temperature affects solubility, with solid solutes generally increasing in solubility while gases decrease. The page explains the dissociation of ionic compounds in water and emphasizes the classification of solutions as saturated or unsaturated based on solute levels relative to solubility limits.
- 13.4: Solutions of Gases in Water
- This page covers the solubility of gases in liquids, emphasizing the roles of temperature and pressure, with implications for ecosystems and applications like carbonated beverages and decompression sickness in divers. It introduces Henry's law, noting that gas solubility increases with pressure, and explains hyperbaric oxygen therapy.
- 13.5: Specifying Solution Concentration- Mass Percent
- This page covers solution concentration, distinguishing between dilute and concentrated solutions. It introduces mass percent (% m/m) as a method for expressing concentration, detailing its calculation by dividing the mass of solute by the mass of the solution and multiplying by 100. Practical examples and exercises reinforce the significance of precise measurements in solution preparation and chemistry.
- 13.6: Specifying Solution Concentration- Molarity
- This page covers molarity as a concentration measure, focusing on its calculation as moles of solute per liter of solution. It underscores the necessity of converting mass to moles and provides examples for calculating molarity and mass from given values. Using potassium permanganate, it details how to calculate the mass required for a specific molarity and volume.
- 13.7: Solution Dilution
- This page covers solution concentration, focusing on "dilute" and "concentrated" terminology. It explains stock solutions for creating diluted solutions while maintaining constant solute amounts. The relationship between concentrations and volumes is defined by the equation \(M_1V_1 = M_2V_2\). The page includes examples and exercises for practical application in laboratory settings.
- 13.8: Solution Stoichiometry
- This page covers double replacement reactions of ionic compounds in aqueous solutions, focusing on calculating reactants or products using molarity. It details how to find the volume of lead (II) nitrate needed to react with sodium chloride to form lead (II) chloride and includes an example of calculating the volume of sodium sulfate for a reaction with barium chloride. The page emphasizes the connection between concentrations and volumes, enhancing the understanding of stoichiometric principles.
- 13.9: Freezing Point Depression and Boiling Point Elevation
- This page explains colligative properties, which depend on solute particle concentration rather than identity, affecting boiling and freezing points. The addition of solutes, such as salt or antifreeze, raises boiling points and lowers freezing points, with changes proportional to solute molality. It includes calculations for these effects with solvent-specific constants.
- 13.10: Osmosis
- This page covers osmotic pressure, connecting it to the Ideal Gas Law and the function of semipermeable membranes that enable solvent movement from dilute to concentrated solutions. It highlights the importance of osmotic pressure in biological contexts, such as intravenous fluid administration and the dangers of drinking seawater, which leads to cellular water loss. Additionally, osmotic pressure plays a crucial role in plant water transport.