25: Solutions II - Nonvolatile Solutes
- Page ID
- 11821
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\(\newcommand{\avec}{\mathbf a}\) \(\newcommand{\bvec}{\mathbf b}\) \(\newcommand{\cvec}{\mathbf c}\) \(\newcommand{\dvec}{\mathbf d}\) \(\newcommand{\dtil}{\widetilde{\mathbf d}}\) \(\newcommand{\evec}{\mathbf e}\) \(\newcommand{\fvec}{\mathbf f}\) \(\newcommand{\nvec}{\mathbf n}\) \(\newcommand{\pvec}{\mathbf p}\) \(\newcommand{\qvec}{\mathbf q}\) \(\newcommand{\svec}{\mathbf s}\) \(\newcommand{\tvec}{\mathbf t}\) \(\newcommand{\uvec}{\mathbf u}\) \(\newcommand{\vvec}{\mathbf v}\) \(\newcommand{\wvec}{\mathbf w}\) \(\newcommand{\xvec}{\mathbf x}\) \(\newcommand{\yvec}{\mathbf y}\) \(\newcommand{\zvec}{\mathbf z}\) \(\newcommand{\rvec}{\mathbf r}\) \(\newcommand{\mvec}{\mathbf m}\) \(\newcommand{\zerovec}{\mathbf 0}\) \(\newcommand{\onevec}{\mathbf 1}\) \(\newcommand{\real}{\mathbb R}\) \(\newcommand{\twovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\ctwovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\threevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cthreevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\mattwo}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{rr}#1 \amp #2 \\ #3 \amp #4 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\laspan}[1]{\text{Span}\{#1\}}\) \(\newcommand{\bcal}{\cal B}\) \(\newcommand{\ccal}{\cal C}\) \(\newcommand{\scal}{\cal S}\) \(\newcommand{\wcal}{\cal W}\) \(\newcommand{\ecal}{\cal E}\) \(\newcommand{\coords}[2]{\left\{#1\right\}_{#2}}\) \(\newcommand{\gray}[1]{\color{gray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\lgray}[1]{\color{lightgray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\rank}{\operatorname{rank}}\) \(\newcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\col}{\text{Col}}\) \(\renewcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\nul}{\text{Nul}}\) \(\newcommand{\var}{\text{Var}}\) \(\newcommand{\corr}{\text{corr}}\) \(\newcommand{\len}[1]{\left|#1\right|}\) \(\newcommand{\bbar}{\overline{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bhat}{\widehat{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bperp}{\bvec^\perp}\) \(\newcommand{\xhat}{\widehat{\xvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\vhat}{\widehat{\vvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\uhat}{\widehat{\uvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\what}{\widehat{\wvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\Sighat}{\widehat{\Sigma}}\) \(\newcommand{\lt}{<}\) \(\newcommand{\gt}{>}\) \(\newcommand{\amp}{&}\) \(\definecolor{fillinmathshade}{gray}{0.9}\)- 25.1: Standard State of Nonvolatile Solutions
- This page discusses the concept of activity as a relative measure of equilibrium in chemistry, emphasizing its definition by IUPAC. It distinguishes the standard state for solutions, which is related to infinite dilution instead of a concentration of 1 mol/L. This highlights that the standard state assumes no interaction between solute particles, while the activity coefficient captures non-ideal behavior when it deviates from 1.
- 25.2: The Activities of Nonvolatile Solutes
- This page explores fugacity and activity in non-ideal gases and solutions, emphasizing how fugacity represents effective pressure and activity measures a compound's behavior relative to standard conditions. It explains the relationship between chemical potential and mole fraction through activity coefficients, crucial for calculating equilibrium constants. The text highlights the significance of a standardized reference state in chemistry as established by IUPAC.
- 25.3: Colligative Properties Depend only on Number Density
- This page covers colligative properties of solutions, including freezing point depression, boiling point elevation, and osmotic pressure. It explains how solutes affect the chemical potential of the solvent, leading to changes in freezing and boiling temperatures. Key concepts include calculating molar mass through boiling point elevation and using Raoult's Law for vapor pressure determination.
- 25.4: Osmotic Pressure can Determine Molecular Masses
- This page discusses the selective permeability of membrane materials influencing osmosis, crucial for biological processes. It highlights the calculation and application of osmotic pressure in water purification, and methods like osmometry and chromatography for determining molar masses, especially of polymers. Furthermore, the page describes melting point depression as a technique for assessing purity in organic synthesis, particularly for pharmaceuticals.
- 25.5: Electrolytes Solutions are Nonideal at Low Concentrations
- This page explores the challenges of studying strong electrolytes like NaCl in solution, focusing on the dissociation into charged ions and non-ideal behavior due to electrostatic interactions. It emphasizes the significance of stoichiometric coefficients in thermodynamic descriptions and introduces mean ionic activity in relation to salt concentration.
- 25.6: The Debye-Hückel Theory
- This page discusses the challenges of measuring activity coefficients in ionic solutions and presents the Debye-Hückel theory as a solution for predicting these coefficients in dilute concentrations. It highlights the importance of ionic strength in determining mean activity coefficients and the effects on Debye length.
- 25.7: Extending Debye-Hückel Theory to Higher Concentrations
- This page discusses the Debye–Hückel limiting law, which predicts ion activity coefficients in low electrolyte concentrations but deviates at higher concentrations and with highly charged ions due to assumptions of no ion interaction and complete dissociation.
- 25.8: Homework Problems
- This page discusses the mid-1920s development of the uncertainty principle by physicist Werner Heisenberg, which states that the precision of a quantum particle's position and momentum is inherently limited. This principle reveals that decreasing uncertainty in one aspect increases it in the other, stemming from the wave nature of matter. An exercise included illustrates the differences in positional uncertainty between a baseball and an electron.