17: Radioactivity and Nuclear Chemistry
- Page ID
- 47431
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\(\newcommand{\avec}{\mathbf a}\) \(\newcommand{\bvec}{\mathbf b}\) \(\newcommand{\cvec}{\mathbf c}\) \(\newcommand{\dvec}{\mathbf d}\) \(\newcommand{\dtil}{\widetilde{\mathbf d}}\) \(\newcommand{\evec}{\mathbf e}\) \(\newcommand{\fvec}{\mathbf f}\) \(\newcommand{\nvec}{\mathbf n}\) \(\newcommand{\pvec}{\mathbf p}\) \(\newcommand{\qvec}{\mathbf q}\) \(\newcommand{\svec}{\mathbf s}\) \(\newcommand{\tvec}{\mathbf t}\) \(\newcommand{\uvec}{\mathbf u}\) \(\newcommand{\vvec}{\mathbf v}\) \(\newcommand{\wvec}{\mathbf w}\) \(\newcommand{\xvec}{\mathbf x}\) \(\newcommand{\yvec}{\mathbf y}\) \(\newcommand{\zvec}{\mathbf z}\) \(\newcommand{\rvec}{\mathbf r}\) \(\newcommand{\mvec}{\mathbf m}\) \(\newcommand{\zerovec}{\mathbf 0}\) \(\newcommand{\onevec}{\mathbf 1}\) \(\newcommand{\real}{\mathbb R}\) \(\newcommand{\twovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\ctwovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\threevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cthreevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\mattwo}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{rr}#1 \amp #2 \\ #3 \amp #4 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\laspan}[1]{\text{Span}\{#1\}}\) \(\newcommand{\bcal}{\cal B}\) \(\newcommand{\ccal}{\cal C}\) \(\newcommand{\scal}{\cal S}\) \(\newcommand{\wcal}{\cal W}\) \(\newcommand{\ecal}{\cal E}\) \(\newcommand{\coords}[2]{\left\{#1\right\}_{#2}}\) \(\newcommand{\gray}[1]{\color{gray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\lgray}[1]{\color{lightgray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\rank}{\operatorname{rank}}\) \(\newcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\col}{\text{Col}}\) \(\renewcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\nul}{\text{Nul}}\) \(\newcommand{\var}{\text{Var}}\) \(\newcommand{\corr}{\text{corr}}\) \(\newcommand{\len}[1]{\left|#1\right|}\) \(\newcommand{\bbar}{\overline{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bhat}{\widehat{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bperp}{\bvec^\perp}\) \(\newcommand{\xhat}{\widehat{\xvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\vhat}{\widehat{\vvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\uhat}{\widehat{\uvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\what}{\widehat{\wvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\Sighat}{\widehat{\Sigma}}\) \(\newcommand{\lt}{<}\) \(\newcommand{\gt}{>}\) \(\newcommand{\amp}{&}\) \(\definecolor{fillinmathshade}{gray}{0.9}\)In today’s society, the term radioactivity conjures up a variety of images:
- Nuclear power plants producing hydrocarbon-free energy, but with potentially deadly by-products that are difficult to store safely.
- Bombs with the capacity to use nuclear reactions that produce devastating explosions with horrible side effects on the earth as we know it, and on the surviving populations that inhabit it.
- Medical technology that utilizes nuclear chemistry to peer inside living things to detect disease, and the power to irradiate tissues to potentially cure these diseases.
- Fusion reactors that hold the promise of limitless energy with few toxic side products.
Radioactivity has a colorful history and clearly presents a variety of social and scientific dilemmas. In this chapter we will introduce the basic concepts of radioactivity, nuclear equations, and the processes involved in nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.
- 17.2: The Discovery of Radioactivity
- This page covers the discovery of radioactivity, spotlighting key figures like Henri Becquerel and Marie Curie, and their impactful experiments, including uranium salts and pitchblende. It explains the types of radiation—alpha, beta, and gamma—and discusses concepts of nuclear stability and binding energy. Additionally, it compares the energy produced in nuclear reactions to that in chemical reactions, emphasizing the significantly greater energy release in nuclear processes.
- 17.3: Types of Radioactivity- Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Decay
- This page covers radioactive decay types, mainly alpha, beta, and gamma emissions, detailing their ionizing and penetration powers. Alpha particles are highly ionizing but minimally penetrating, while beta particles fall in between, and gamma rays are highly penetrating but low in ionization. The page explains decay processes and nuclear equations that illustrate element transformation.
- 17.4: Detecting Radioactivity
- This page details the Geiger counter's operation in measuring ionizing radiation types, including alpha, beta, and gamma particles. It explains the ionization process from particle collisions in a Geiger tube, leading to audible clicks and meter readings. The page also covers background radiation sources, primarily natural, like earth's radioactive materials, cosmic rays, and atmospheric elements such as radon gas and carbon-14.
- 17.5: Natural Radioactivity and Half-Life
- This page explains half-life as the time needed for half of a radioactive substance to decay, noting its uniqueness to each isotope and independence from external factors. It provides examples of calculations for remaining isotopes after certain half-lives, methods for determining half-lives from data, and applications in radioactive dating, including carbon-14 for organic materials and uranium-238 for geological dating.
- 17.6: Radiocarbon Dating- Using Radioactivity to Measure the Age of Fossils and Other Artifacts
- This page provides an overview of radiocarbon dating, a technique that measures the age of organic materials through the decay of carbon-14 (14C) after the organism's death. It explains the method's principles, historical development by Willard Libby, applications in fields like archaeology, and how carbon-14 is replenished in the atmosphere. Examples, including the dating of the Dead Sea Scrolls, highlight its practical uses.
- 17.7: The Discovery of Fission and the Atomic Bomb
- This page explains nuclear fission and fusion, defining fission as the splitting of large nuclei, particularly those larger than iron-56, and fusion as the combining of smaller nuclei into larger, stable ones. It highlights energy release in both reactions and discusses chain reactions in fission, notably with uranium-235. Additionally, it addresses the dual nature of nuclear energy, with applications in industry and medicine, alongside concerns regarding nuclear weapons.
- 17.8: Nuclear Power- Using Fission to Generate Electricity
- This page explains nuclear fission reactors, detailing how controlled fission generates electricity via turbines and the significance of uranium-235 and control rods. It discusses historical opposition and safety measures, referencing the Three Mile Island incident, while noting the contribution of U.S. nuclear plants to zero-emission electricity generation. Additionally, it contrasts the challenges of nuclear fusion in electricity production.
- 17.9: Nuclear Fusion- The Power of the Sun
- This page examines nuclear fusion for energy generation, highlighting its process of merging light nuclei like deuterium and tritium to produce helium and release energy. It contrasts fusion with fission, noting the challenges linked to high activation energy and nuclear repulsion. Current methods involve magnetic confinement and laser compression, with limited success. While fusion offers a promising, environmentally friendly energy solution, practical application is still not imminent.
- 17.10: The Effects of Radiation on Life
- This page covers the biological effects of ionizing radiation, highlighting its potential to damage cells and cause cancer, especially from sources like radon gas. It contrasts ionizing with nonionizing radiation, noting the greater risks associated with the former. The text details radiation measurement tools like Geiger counters and dosimeters, and the units used, such as becquerels and sieverts.
- 17.11: Radioactivity in Medicine
- This page covers advancements in nuclear medicine, highlighting imaging and therapeutic techniques. It details Radioiodine (\(I-131\)) Therapy for overactive thyroids, Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scans for imaging conditions like cancer, and External Beam Therapy (EBT) for targeted tumor treatment while protecting surrounding tissues.
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