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References

D.C.Harris, Exploring Chemical Analysis, W.H.Freeman & Company (1997)
Douglas A. Skoog and Donald M. West, Fundamentals of Analytical Chemistry, 3rd Edition, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, (1976).
Douglas A. Skoog, Donald M. West, James F. Holler and Stanley R. Crouch,Fundamentals of Analytical Chemistry, 8th Edition, Thomson, Brooks/Cole Publishing Co., (2004).
Douglas A. Skoog, Donald M. West, James F. Holler and Stanley R. Crouch,Analytical Chemistry: An Introduction, 7th Edition, Thomson, Brooks/Cole Publishing Co., (2000).
Harris, D.C., Quantitative Chemical Analysis, 6th Ed., New York: W.H. Free- man and Co., (2002).
Henry F. Holtzclaw, Jr., and William R. Robinson, General Chemistry, 8thEdition, D.C. Heath and Company, (1988).
Harris, D.C., Exploring Chemical Analysis, 2nd Ed., New York: W.H. Freeman and Co., (2002).
H.H. Willard, L.L. Merritt, Jr., J.A. Dean, F.A. Settle, Jr., Instrumental Methods of Analysis, 7th Edition, Wadworth Publishing Company (1988).
J.F.Rubinson and K.A.Rubinson, Contemporary Chemical Analysis, Prentice Hall (1998).
John R. Taylor, An Introduction to Error Analysis: The Study of Uncertainties in Physical Measurements, 2nd Edition, University Science Books, (1997)
Philip R. Bevington and D. Keith Robinson, Data Reduction and Error Analysis for the Physical Sciences, 2nd Edition, WCB/McGraw-Hill, (1992).

Glossary

Accuracy: this is the closeness of a result to the correct answer.

Acid: A substance that yields hydrogen ions (H⁺) when dissolved in water.

Base: A substance that yields hydroxide ions (OH^-) when dissolved in water.

Base ionization constant (K_b): The equilibrium constant for the base ionization.

Bronsted acid: A substance that is able to donate a proton.

Bronsted base: A substance that is capable of accepting a proton.

Chemical equation: An equation that uses chemical symbols to show what happens during a chemical reaction.

Chemical equilibrium: A state in which the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal.

Chemical reaction:A process in which a substance (or substances) is changed into one or more new substances.

Complex ion: An ion containing a central metal cation bonded to one or more molecules or ions.

Common ion effect: The shift in equilibrium caused by the addition of a com- pound having an ion in common with the dissolved substances.

Determinate errors: these are mistakes, which are often referred to as “bias”. In theory, these could be eliminated by careful technique.

Diprotic acid: Each unit of the acid yields two hydrogen ions upon ionization.

End point: The pH at which the indicator changes colour.

Equilibrium constant (K_eq): A number equal to the ratio of the equilibrium concentrations of products to the equilibrium concentrations of reactants, eachraised to the power of its stoichiometric coefficient.

Equivalence point: The point at which the acid has completely reacted with or been neutralized by the base.

Homogeneous sample: sample is the same throughout.

Hydronium ion:The hydrated proton, H₃O⁺.

Indeterminate errors: these are errors caused by the need to make estimates in the last figure of a measurement, by noise present in instruments, etc. Sucherrors can be reduced, but never entirely eliminated.

Law of mass action: For a reversible reaction at equilibrium and at a constant temperature, a certain ratio of reactant and product concentrations has a constant value, K_eq (the equilibrium constant).

Lewis acid:A substance that can accept a pair of electrons.

Lewis base: A substance that can donate a pair of electrons.

Monoprotic acid: Each unit of the acid yields one hydrogen ion upon ionization.

Neutralization reaction: A reaction between an acid and a base.

Oxidation reaction: The half-reaction that involves the loss of electrons.

Oxidation-reduction reaction: A reaction that involves the transfer of electron(s) or the change in the oxidation state of reactants.

Oxidizing agent: A substance that can accept electrons from another substance or increase the oxidation numbers in another substance.

pH: The negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration.

Precision: the reproducibility of a data set; a measure of the ability to obtain the same number (not necessarily the correct number) in every trial.

Redox reaction: A reaction in which there is either a transfer of electrons or a change in the oxidation numbers of the substances taking part in the reaction.

Reducing agent: A substance that can donate electrons to another substance or decrease the oxidation numbers in another substance.

Representative sample: a sample whose content is the same overall as the material from which it is taken from.

Sampling: this is used to describe the process involved in finding a reasonable amount of material that is representative of the whole.

Significant figures: The number of meaningful digits in a measured or calculated quantity.

Solution: A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.

Standard solution: A solution of accurately known concentration.

Stoichiometrry: The quantitative study of reactants and products in a chemical reaction.