1: Foundations for Success
- Page ID
- 483506
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\(\newcommand{\avec}{\mathbf a}\) \(\newcommand{\bvec}{\mathbf b}\) \(\newcommand{\cvec}{\mathbf c}\) \(\newcommand{\dvec}{\mathbf d}\) \(\newcommand{\dtil}{\widetilde{\mathbf d}}\) \(\newcommand{\evec}{\mathbf e}\) \(\newcommand{\fvec}{\mathbf f}\) \(\newcommand{\nvec}{\mathbf n}\) \(\newcommand{\pvec}{\mathbf p}\) \(\newcommand{\qvec}{\mathbf q}\) \(\newcommand{\svec}{\mathbf s}\) \(\newcommand{\tvec}{\mathbf t}\) \(\newcommand{\uvec}{\mathbf u}\) \(\newcommand{\vvec}{\mathbf v}\) \(\newcommand{\wvec}{\mathbf w}\) \(\newcommand{\xvec}{\mathbf x}\) \(\newcommand{\yvec}{\mathbf y}\) \(\newcommand{\zvec}{\mathbf z}\) \(\newcommand{\rvec}{\mathbf r}\) \(\newcommand{\mvec}{\mathbf m}\) \(\newcommand{\zerovec}{\mathbf 0}\) \(\newcommand{\onevec}{\mathbf 1}\) \(\newcommand{\real}{\mathbb R}\) \(\newcommand{\twovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\ctwovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\threevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cthreevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\mattwo}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{rr}#1 \amp #2 \\ #3 \amp #4 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\laspan}[1]{\text{Span}\{#1\}}\) \(\newcommand{\bcal}{\cal B}\) \(\newcommand{\ccal}{\cal C}\) \(\newcommand{\scal}{\cal S}\) \(\newcommand{\wcal}{\cal W}\) \(\newcommand{\ecal}{\cal E}\) \(\newcommand{\coords}[2]{\left\{#1\right\}_{#2}}\) \(\newcommand{\gray}[1]{\color{gray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\lgray}[1]{\color{lightgray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\rank}{\operatorname{rank}}\) \(\newcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\col}{\text{Col}}\) \(\renewcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\nul}{\text{Nul}}\) \(\newcommand{\var}{\text{Var}}\) \(\newcommand{\corr}{\text{corr}}\) \(\newcommand{\len}[1]{\left|#1\right|}\) \(\newcommand{\bbar}{\overline{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bhat}{\widehat{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bperp}{\bvec^\perp}\) \(\newcommand{\xhat}{\widehat{\xvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\vhat}{\widehat{\vvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\uhat}{\widehat{\uvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\what}{\widehat{\wvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\Sighat}{\widehat{\Sigma}}\) \(\newcommand{\lt}{<}\) \(\newcommand{\gt}{>}\) \(\newcommand{\amp}{&}\) \(\definecolor{fillinmathshade}{gray}{0.9}\)- 1.0: Introduction
- This chapter reviews key high school chemistry concepts needed for success in this course, including units, measurements, atoms, molecules, chemical equations, and solution stoichiometry. It connects macroscopic observations with microscopic behaviour and symbolic representations. Students can use this chapter to refresh foundational skills depending on their background.
- 1.1: Units and Measurements
- This section reviews the SI system and commonly used units in chemistry, explains how to convert between units using dimensional analysis, introduces derived units such as volume and density, and covers the use of significant figures in measurements and calculations, along with the concepts of precision and accuracy.
- 1.2: Atoms, Elements, and the Mole
- An atom consists of a small, positively charged nucleus (containing protons and neutrons) surrounded by electrons. Elements are represented by chemical symbols and organized in the periodic table, with elements in the same group sharing chemical properties. Atomic mass is a weighted average of an element’s naturally occurring isotopes. A mole is a unit that counts large numbers of atoms or molecules. The molar mass of an element (in g/mol) is numerically equal to its atomic mass in amu.
- 1.3: Compounds and How We Represent Them
- Most elements are found in nature as part of compounds. Compounds form when atoms are held together by chemical bonds. In ionic compounds, oppositely charged ions are held together by electrostatic attraction. In covalent compounds, atoms are held together by shared electrons. Chemical formulas and names show which elements are present and in what ratios. Subscripts show how many atoms of each element are in a unit, and coefficients show how many units there are.
- 1.4: Chemical Reactions and Equations
- Chemical reactions involve the rearrangement of atoms to form new substances. Chemical equations use formulas and symbols to represent what happens during a reaction. Coefficients show the relative number of particles or moles involved and must be adjusted so that the number of each type of atom is the same on both sides of the equation. This reflects the law of conservation of mass.
- 1.5: Reaction Stoichiometry
- The coefficients in a balanced chemical equation provide mole ratios that can be used to calculate masses, moles, and other quantitative properties of the substances involved. When a reaction is carried out with less than the stoichiometric amount of one or more reactants, the limiting reactant determines how much product can form. The actual yield is the amount of product obtained, and the percent yield expresses how much was produced relative to the theoretical maximum.
- 1.6: Molarity and Solution Stoichiometry
- The concentration of a solution is most commonly expressed as molarity (M), defined as the number of moles of solute per litre of solution. In a dilution, solvent is added to a solution, decreasing its concentration without changing the amount of solute. Knowing the molarity of a solution allows you to solve stoichiometry problems involving reactions in solution, by converting volumes to moles using molarity and applying mole ratios from balanced chemical equations.
- 1.E: Foundations for Success (Exercises)
- These problems are designed to help you review key high school chemistry concepts and get ready for the material you'll encounter in CHM135H. Depending on your background and comfort level, you may find it helpful to complete more or fewer of these problems. They're a great way to refresh your skills and build confidence before diving into the course content.