33.3: Other Automated Methods of Analysis
- Page ID
- 364273
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\(\newcommand{\avec}{\mathbf a}\) \(\newcommand{\bvec}{\mathbf b}\) \(\newcommand{\cvec}{\mathbf c}\) \(\newcommand{\dvec}{\mathbf d}\) \(\newcommand{\dtil}{\widetilde{\mathbf d}}\) \(\newcommand{\evec}{\mathbf e}\) \(\newcommand{\fvec}{\mathbf f}\) \(\newcommand{\nvec}{\mathbf n}\) \(\newcommand{\pvec}{\mathbf p}\) \(\newcommand{\qvec}{\mathbf q}\) \(\newcommand{\svec}{\mathbf s}\) \(\newcommand{\tvec}{\mathbf t}\) \(\newcommand{\uvec}{\mathbf u}\) \(\newcommand{\vvec}{\mathbf v}\) \(\newcommand{\wvec}{\mathbf w}\) \(\newcommand{\xvec}{\mathbf x}\) \(\newcommand{\yvec}{\mathbf y}\) \(\newcommand{\zvec}{\mathbf z}\) \(\newcommand{\rvec}{\mathbf r}\) \(\newcommand{\mvec}{\mathbf m}\) \(\newcommand{\zerovec}{\mathbf 0}\) \(\newcommand{\onevec}{\mathbf 1}\) \(\newcommand{\real}{\mathbb R}\) \(\newcommand{\twovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\ctwovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\threevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cthreevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\mattwo}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{rr}#1 \amp #2 \\ #3 \amp #4 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\laspan}[1]{\text{Span}\{#1\}}\) \(\newcommand{\bcal}{\cal B}\) \(\newcommand{\ccal}{\cal C}\) \(\newcommand{\scal}{\cal S}\) \(\newcommand{\wcal}{\cal W}\) \(\newcommand{\ecal}{\cal E}\) \(\newcommand{\coords}[2]{\left\{#1\right\}_{#2}}\) \(\newcommand{\gray}[1]{\color{gray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\lgray}[1]{\color{lightgray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\rank}{\operatorname{rank}}\) \(\newcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\col}{\text{Col}}\) \(\renewcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\nul}{\text{Nul}}\) \(\newcommand{\var}{\text{Var}}\) \(\newcommand{\corr}{\text{corr}}\) \(\newcommand{\len}[1]{\left|#1\right|}\) \(\newcommand{\bbar}{\overline{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bhat}{\widehat{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bperp}{\bvec^\perp}\) \(\newcommand{\xhat}{\widehat{\xvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\vhat}{\widehat{\vvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\uhat}{\widehat{\uvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\what}{\widehat{\wvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\Sighat}{\widehat{\Sigma}}\) \(\newcommand{\lt}{<}\) \(\newcommand{\gt}{>}\) \(\newcommand{\amp}{&}\) \(\definecolor{fillinmathshade}{gray}{0.9}\)In the last two sections we introduced two examples of automated methods of analysis: a brief mention of automated titrators and a more extensive coverage of flow-injection analysis. In this section we consider three additional examples of automated methods of analysis: the stopped-flow analyzer, the centrifugal analyzer, and disposable single-test analyzers based on thin films, screen-printing, and paper.
Stopped-Flow Analyzer
A variety of instruments have been developed to automate the kinetic analysis of fast reactions. One example, which is shown in Figure 33.3.1 , is the stopped-flow analyzer. The sample and the reagents are loaded into separate syringes and precisely measured volumes are dispensed into a mixing chamber by the action of a syringe drive. The continued action of the syringe drive pushes the mixture through an observation cell and into a stopping syringe. The back pressure generated when the stopping syringe hits the stopping block completes the mixing, after which the reaction’s progress is monitored spectrophotometrically. With a stopped-flow analyzer it is possible to complete the mixing of sample and reagent, and initiate the kinetic measurements in approximately 0.5 ms. By attaching an autosampler to the sample syringe it is possible to analyze up to several hundred samples per hour.
Centrifugal Analyzer
Another instrument for kinetic measurements is the centrifugal analyzer, a partial cross section of which is shown in Figure 33.3.2 . The sample and the reagents are placed in separate wells, which are oriented radially around a circular transfer disk. As the centrifuge spins, the centrifugal force pulls the sample and the reagents into the cuvette where mixing occurs. A single optical source and detector, located below and above the transfer disk’s outer edge, measures the absorbance each time the cuvette passes through the optical beam. When using a transfer disk with 30 cuvettes and rotating at 600 rpm, we can collect 10 data points per second for each sample.
The ability to collect lots of data and to collect it quickly requires appropriate hardware and software. Not surprisingly, automated kinetic analyzers developed in parallel with advances in analog and digital circuitry—the hardware—and computer software for smoothing, integrating, and differentiating the analytical signal. For an early discussion of the importance of hardware and software, see Malmstadt, H. V.; Delaney, C. J.; Cordos, E. A. “Instruments for Rate Determinations,” Anal. Chem. 1972, 44(12), 79A–89A.
Disposable, Single-Test Analyzers
In comparison to other techniques, potentiometry provides a rapid, relatively low-cost means for analyzing samples. The limiting factor when analyzing a large number of samples is the need to rinse the electrode between samples. The use of inexpensive, disposable ion-selective electrodes can increase a lab’s sample throughput. Figure 33.3.3 shows one example of a disposable ISE for Ag+ [Tymecki, L.; Zwierkowska, E.; Głąb, S.; Koncki, R. Sens. Actuators B 2003, 96, 482–488]. Commercial instruments for measuring pH or potential are available in a variety of price ranges, and includes portable models for use in the field.
