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- https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Smith_College/Organic_Chemistry_(LibreTexts)/20%3A_Carboxylic_Acids_and_Nitriles/20.05%3A_Substituent_Effects_on_AcidityYou have already seen how the presence of an electron‑withdrawing or electron‑releasing group affects the stability of a positively charged carbocation. Now you see how these groups affect the stabili...You have already seen how the presence of an electron‑withdrawing or electron‑releasing group affects the stability of a positively charged carbocation. Now you see how these groups affect the stability of carboxylate anions, and in turn, determine the dissociation constant of a carboxylic acid.
- https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Organic_Chemistry_I_(Morsch_et_al.)/02%3A_Polar_Covalent_Bonds_Acids_and_Bases/2.07%3A_Acid_and_Base_StrengthThe relative acidity of different compounds or functional groups – in other words, their relative capacity to donate a proton to a common base under identical conditions – is quantified by a number ca...The relative acidity of different compounds or functional groups – in other words, their relative capacity to donate a proton to a common base under identical conditions – is quantified by a number called the dissociation constant, abbreviated Ka. The common base chosen for comparison is water.
- https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Alma_College/Organic_Chemistry_I_(Alma_College)/07%3A_Acids_and_Bases/7.02%3A_Acid_and_Base_StrengthThe relative acidity of different compounds or functional groups – in other words, their relative capacity to donate a proton to a common base under identical conditions – is quantified by a number ca...The relative acidity of different compounds or functional groups – in other words, their relative capacity to donate a proton to a common base under identical conditions – is quantified by a number called the dissociation constant, abbreviated Ka. The common base chosen for comparison is water.
- https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_(Organic_Chemistry)/Fundamentals/What_is_the_pKa_of_waterIt is incorrect to present the value of 15.7 for the pKa of water, yet this value has entered the fields of organic chemistry and biochemistry. The proposed value of 1.8 x 10-16 for the Ka of water ca...It is incorrect to present the value of 15.7 for the pKa of water, yet this value has entered the fields of organic chemistry and biochemistry. The proposed value of 1.8 x 10-16 for the Ka of water cannot be justified with thermodynamic data, nor are there any experimental data to support this value. In fact, 1.8 x 10-16 is a hypothetical value that was arrived at using specious arguments to justify an incorrect assumption that the relative strengths of acids were unaffected by changing solvent.
- https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Organic_Chemistry_(Morsch_et_al.)/20%3A_Carboxylic_Acids_and_Nitriles/20.04%3A_Substituent_Effects_on_AcidityThis page discusses the effects of substituents on the acidity of carboxylic and substituted benzoic acids. It highlights the inductive effect, where electron-withdrawing groups like fluorine increase...This page discusses the effects of substituents on the acidity of carboxylic and substituted benzoic acids. It highlights the inductive effect, where electron-withdrawing groups like fluorine increase acidity by stabilizing the carboxylate anion. Electron-donating groups have the opposite effect. The page also covers the ortho-effect in benzoic acids, influencing acidity regardless of substituent type, and provides examples and exercises related to acidity influenced by different substituents.
- https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Grinnell_College/CHM_364%3A_Physical_Chemistry_2_(Grinnell_College)/13%3A_Lasers_Laser_Spectroscopy_and_Photochemistry/13.03%3A_A_Two-Level_System_Cannot_Achieve_a_Population_InversionIn this section, we will show that achieving population inversion in a two-level system is not very practical. Such a task would require a very strong pumping transition that would send any decaying a...In this section, we will show that achieving population inversion in a two-level system is not very practical. Such a task would require a very strong pumping transition that would send any decaying atom back into its excited state. This would be similar to reversing the flow of water in a waterfall. It can be done but is very energy costly and inefficient. In a sense, the pumping transition would have to work against the lasing transition.
- https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Smith_College/CHM_222_Chemistry_II%3A_Organic_Chemistry_(2025)/02%3A_Polar_Covalent_Bonds_Resonance_Structures_Acids_and_Bases/2.08%3A_Acid_and_Base_StrengthThe relative acidity of different compounds or functional groups – in other words, their relative capacity to donate a proton to a common base under identical conditions – is quantified by a number ca...The relative acidity of different compounds or functional groups – in other words, their relative capacity to donate a proton to a common base under identical conditions – is quantified by a number called the dissociation constant, abbreviated Ka. The common base chosen for comparison is water.
- https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Organic_Chemistry_(Morsch_et_al.)/02%3A_Polar_Covalent_Bonds_Acids_and_Bases/2.07%3A_Acid_and_Base_StrengthThe relative acidity of different compounds or functional groups – in other words, their relative capacity to donate a proton to a common base under identical conditions – is quantified by a number ca...The relative acidity of different compounds or functional groups – in other words, their relative capacity to donate a proton to a common base under identical conditions – is quantified by a number called the dissociation constant, abbreviated Ka. The common base chosen for comparison is water.
- https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Grand_Rapids_Community_College/CHM_120_-_Survey_of_General_Chemistry(Neils)/4%3A_Intermolecular_Forces_Phases_and_Solutions/4.09_Solutions_-_What_Mixes_Together_and_WhyOne of the most important applications of intermolecular forces is to use them to predict if substances will form a solution. An often cited adage is "Like dissolves like", which means that nonpolar s...One of the most important applications of intermolecular forces is to use them to predict if substances will form a solution. An often cited adage is "Like dissolves like", which means that nonpolar substances mix with nonpolar substances, and polar substances mix with polar substances. But what about ions? And what about water, which is a very polar substance?
- https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Grinnell_College/CHM_364%3A_Physical_Chemistry_2_(Grinnell_College)/13%3A_Lasers_Laser_Spectroscopy_and_Photochemistry/13.04%3A_Population_Inversion_can_be_Achieved_in_a_Three-Level_SystemThe presence of a third energy level in a system allows for a population inversion to be created. Thus, a three-level system can act as a gain medium and can serve as a laser. The two possible lasing ...The presence of a third energy level in a system allows for a population inversion to be created. Thus, a three-level system can act as a gain medium and can serve as a laser. The two possible lasing mechanisms for a three-level system will be described in this section.
- https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Lebanon_Valley_College/CHM_311%3A_Physical_Chemistry_I_(Lebanon_Valley_College)/10%3A_Electronic_Spectroscopy/10.03%3A_A_Two-Level_System_Cannot_Achieve_a_Population_InversionIn this section, we will show that achieving population inversion in a two-level system is not very practical. Such a task would require a very strong pumping transition that would send any decaying a...In this section, we will show that achieving population inversion in a two-level system is not very practical. Such a task would require a very strong pumping transition that would send any decaying atom back into its excited state. This would be similar to reversing the flow of water in a waterfall. It can be done but is very energy costly and inefficient. In a sense, the pumping transition would have to work against the lasing transition.
