10.E: Solutions (Exercises)

Solutions

Concept Review Exercises

1. What causes a solution to form?
2. How does the phrase like dissolves like relate to solutions?

Answers

1. Solutions form because a solute and a solvent have similar intermolecular interactions.
2. It means that substances with similar intermolecular interactions will dissolve in each other.

Exercises

1. Define solution.
2. Give several examples of solutions.
3. What is the difference between a solvent and a solute?
4. Can a solution have more than one solute in it? Can you give an example?
5. Does a solution have to be a liquid? Give several examples to support your answer.
6. Give at least two examples of solutions found in the human body.
7. Which substances will probably be soluble in water, a very polar solvent?
   1. sodium nitrate (NaNO₃)
   2. hexane (C₆H₁₄)
   3. isopropyl alcohol [(CH₃)₂CHOH]
   4. benzene (C₆H₆)
8. Which substances will probably be soluble in toluene (C₆H₅CH₃), a nonpolar solvent?
   1. sodium nitrate (NaNO₃)
   2. hexane (C₆H₁₄)
   3. isopropyl alcohol [(CH₃)₂CHOH]
   4. benzene (C₆H₆)
9. The solubility of alcohols in water varies with the length of carbon chain. For example, ethanol (CH₃CH₂OH) is soluble in water in any ratio, while only 0.0008 mL of heptanol (CH₃CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂OH) will dissolve in 100 mL of water. Propose an explanation for this behavior.
10. Dimethyl sulfoxide [(CH₃)₂SO] is a polar liquid. Based on the information in Exercise 9, which do you think will be more soluble in it—ethanol or heptanol?

Answers

1. a homogeneous mixture

2. vinegar, dextrose IV, saline IV, coffee, tea, wine

3. A solvent is the majority component of a solution; a solute is the minority component of a solution.

4. yes. Coke or Pepsi has sugar, caffeine and carbon dioxide as solutes.

5. A solution does not have to be liquid; air is a gaseous solution, while some alloys are solid solutions (answers will vary).

6. Urine, plasma

7. 1. probably soluble
   2. probably not soluble
   3. probably soluble
   4. probably not soluble

8.

1. probably not soluble
2. probably soluble
3. probably not soluble
4. probably soluble

9. Small alcohol molecules have strong polar intermolecular interactions, so they dissolve in water. In large alcohol molecules, the nonpolar end overwhelms the polar end, so they do not dissolve very well in water.

10. Ethanol is a smaller molecule. It will be more soluble in water than heptanol.

The Dissolution Process

Concept Review Exercise

1. Explain how the solvation process describes the dissolution of a solute in a solvent.

Answer

1. Each particle of the solute is surrounded by particles of the solvent, carrying the solute from its original phase.

Exercises

1. Describe what happens when an ionic solute like Na₂SO₄ dissolves in a polar solvent.
2. Describe what happens when a molecular solute like sucrose (C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁) dissolves in a polar solvent.
3. Classify each substance as an electrolyte or a nonelectrolyte. Each substance dissolves in H₂O to some extent.
   1. NH₄NO₃
   2. CO₂
   3. NH₂CONH₂
   4. HCl
4. Classify each substance as an electrolyte or a nonelectrolyte. Each substance dissolves in H₂O to some extent.
   1. CH₃CH₂CH₂OH
   2. Ca(CH₃CO₂)₂
   3. I₂
   4. KOH
5. Will solutions of each solute conduct electricity when dissolved?
   1. AgNO₃
   2. CHCl₃
   3. BaCl₂
   4. Li₂O
6. Will solutions of each solute conduct electricity when dissolved?
   1. CH₃COCH₃
   2. N(CH₃)₃
   3. CH₃CO₂C₂H₅
   4. FeCl₂

Answers

1. Each ion of the ionic solute is surrounded by particles of solvent, carrying the ion from its associated crystal.

2. Each sucrose molecule is surrounded by solvent molecules (attracted to each other via intermolecular forces of attraction).

3. 1. electrolyte
   2. nonelectrolyte
   3. nonelectrolyte
   4. electrolyte

4.

• nonelectrolyte
• electrolyte
• nonelectrolyte
• electrolyte

5.

1. yes
2. no
3. yes
4. yes

6.

a. no

b. no

c. no

d. yes

Solution Concentration

Concept Review Exercises

1. What are some of the units used to express concentration?
2. Distinguish between the terms solubility and concentration.

Answers

1. % m/m, % m/v, ppm, ppb, molarity, and Eq/L (answers will vary)
2. Solubility is typically a limit to how much solute can dissolve in a given amount of solvent. Concentration is the quantitative amount of solute dissolved at any concentration in a solvent.

Exercises

1. Define solubility. Do all solutes have the same solubility?
2. Explain why the terms dilute or concentrated are of limited usefulness in describing the concentration of solutions.
3. If the solubility of sodium chloride (NaCl) is 30.6 g/100 mL of H₂O at a given temperature, how many grams of NaCl can be dissolved in 250.0 mL of H₂O?
4. If the solubility of glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) is 120.3 g/100 mL of H₂O at a given temperature, how many grams of C₆H₁₂O₆ can be dissolved in 75.0 mL of H₂O?
5. How many grams of sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO₃) can a 25.0°C saturated solution have if 150.0 mL of H₂O is used as the solvent?
6. If 75.0 g of potassium bromide (KBr) are dissolved in 125 mL of H₂O, is the solution saturated, unsaturated, or supersaturated?
7. Calculate the mass/mass percent of a saturated solution of NaCl. Use the data from Table \(\PageIndex{1}\) "Solubilities of Various Solutes in Water at 25°C (Except as Noted)", assume that masses of the solute and the solvent are additive, and use the density of H₂O (1.00 g/mL) as a conversion factor.
8. Calculate the mass/mass percent of a saturated solution of MgCO₃ Use the data from Table \(\PageIndex{1}\) "Solubilities of Various Solutes in Water at 25°C (Except as Noted)", assume that masses of the solute and the solvent are additive, and use the density of H₂O (1.00 g/mL) as a conversion factor.
9. Only 0.203 mL of C₆H₆ will dissolve in 100.000 mL of H₂O. Assuming that the volumes are additive, find the volume/volume percent of a saturated solution of benzene in water.
10. Only 35 mL of aniline (C₆H₅NH₂) is present in a 1,035 mL Solution. Find the volume/volume percent of a saturated solution of aniline in water.
11. A solution of ethyl alcohol (C₂H₅OH) in water has a concentration of 20.56% v/v. What volume of C₂H₅OH is present in 255 mL of solution?
12. What mass of KCl is present in 475 mL of a 1.09% m/v aqueous solution?
13. The average human body contains 5,830 g of blood. What mass of arsenic is present in the body if the amount in blood is 0.55 ppm?
14. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration has set a limit of 200 ppm as the maximum safe exposure level for carbon monoxide (CO). If an average breath has a mass of 1.286 g, what is the maximum mass of CO that can be inhaled at that maximum safe exposure level?
15. Which concentration is greater—15 ppm or 1,500 ppb?
16. Express the concentration 7,580 ppm in parts per billion.
17. What is the molarity of 0.500 L of a potassium chromate solution containing 0.0650 mol of K₂CrO₄?
18. What is the molarity of 4.50 L of a solution containing 0.206 mol of urea [(NH₂)₂CO]?
19. What is the molarity of a 2.66 L aqueous solution containing 56.9 g of NaBr?
20. If 3.08 g of Ca(OH)₂ is dissolved in enough water to make 0.875 L of solution, what is the molarity of the Ca(OH)₂?
21. What mass of HCl is present in 825 mL of a 1.25 M solution?
22. What mass of isopropyl alcohol (C₃H₈O) is dissolved in 2.050 L of a 4.45 M aqueous C₃H₈O solution?
23. What volume of 0.345 M NaCl solution is needed to obtain 10.0 g of NaCl?
24. How many milliliters of a 0.0015 M cocaine hydrochloride (C₁₇H₂₂ClNO₄) solution is needed to obtain 0.010 g of the solute?
25. Aqueous calcium chloride reacts with aqueous silver nitrate according to the following balanced chemical equation:

    CaCl₂(aq) + 2AgNO₃(aq) → 2AgCl(s) + Ca(NO₃)₂(aq)

    How many moles of AgCl(s) are made if 0.557 L of 0.235 M CaCl₂ react with excess AgNO₃? How many grams of AgCl are made?

26. Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO₃) is used to react with acid spills. The reaction with sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) is as follows:

    2NaHCO₃(s) + H₂SO₄(aq) → Na₂SO₄(aq) + 2H₂O(ℓ) + 2CO₂(g)

    If 27.6 mL of a 6.25 M H₂SO₄ solution were spilled, how many moles of NaHCO₃ would be needed to react with the acid? How many grams of NaHCO₃ is this?

27. The fermentation of glucose to make ethanol and carbon dioxide has the following overall chemical equation:

    C₆H₁₂O₆(aq) → 2C₂H₅OH(aq) + 2CO₂(g)

    If 1.00 L of a 0.567 M solution of C₆H₁₂O₆ were completely fermented, what would be the resulting concentration of the C₂H₅OH solution? How many moles of CO₂ would be formed? How many grams is this? If each mole of CO₂ had a volume of 24.5 L, what volume of CO₂ is produced?

28. Aqueous sodium bisulfite gives off sulfur dioxide gas when heated:

    2NaHSO₃(aq) → Na₂SO₃(aq) + H₂O(ℓ) + SO₂(g)

    If 567 mL of a 1.005 M NaHSO₃ solution were heated until all the NaHSO₃ had reacted, what would be the resulting concentration of the Na₂SO₃ solution? How many moles of SO₂ would be formed? How many grams of SO₂ would be formed? If each mole of SO₂ had a volume of 25.78 L, what volume of SO₂ would be produced?

29. What is the concentration of a 1.0 M solution of K⁺(aq) ions in equivalents/liter?
30. What is the concentration of a 1.0 M solution of SO₄²⁻(aq) ions in equivalents/liter?
31. A solution having initial concentration of 0.445 M and initial volume of 45.0 mL is diluted to 100.0 mL. What is its final concentration?
32. A 50.0 mL sample of saltwater that is 3.0% m/v is diluted to 950 mL. What is its final mass/volume percent?

Answers

1. Solubility is the amount of a solute that can dissolve in a given amount of solute, typically 100 mL. The solubility of solutes varies widely.

2. The term dilute means relatively less solute and the term concentrated implies relatively more solute. Both are of limited usefulness because these are not accurate. 3. 76.5 g 4. 90.2 g

5. 12.6 g

6. unsaturated

7. 26.5%

8. 2.15%

9. 0.203%

10. 3.4%

11. 52.4 mL

12. 5.18 g

13. 0.00321 g

14. 2.57 x 10^-4 g

15. 15 ppm

16. 7,580,000 ppb

17. 0.130 M 18. 0.0458 M

19. 0.208 M

20. 0.0475 M

21. 37.6 g

22. 548 g

23. 0.496 L

24. 20 mL

25. 0.262 mol; 37.5 g

26. 0.345 mol; 29.0 g

27. 1.13 M C₂H₅OH; 1.13 mol of CO₂; 49.7 g of CO₂; 27.7 L of CO₂ 28. 0.503 M Na₂SO₃; 0.285 mol SO₂; 18.3 g SO₂; 471 L SO₂ 29. 1.0 Eq/L 30. 2.0 Eq/L 31. 0.200 M

32. 0.16 % m/v

Solution Concentration

Use the following relationships in the problems where needed:

1 Liter = 1000 mL

1 gram = 1000 mg

Use the periodic table for formula weight and molecular weight of the compounds.

1. Potassium iodide is used to treat iodine deficiencies. What is the %(w/v) of a 75 mL solution containing 2.0 g KI?

2. A solution is prepared by dissolving 42.23 g of NH₄Cl into enough water to make 500.0 mL of solution. Calculate its molarity.

2. Calculate the molarity of each:

a. 0.33 mol of NaCl in 2.0 L of solution.

b. 55.0 g of NaCl in 125 mL of solution.

3. Calculate the molarity of each:

a. 1.75 mol of glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) in 15.2 L of solution.

b. 270 mg of glucose in 1.00 mL of solution.

4. If 15.0 g of CaCl₂ is present in 250 mL of aqueous solution, what is the concentration in terms of the following?

a. molarity

b. weight/volume percent

5. If 0.30 mg of sodium fluoride is present in 1.0 L of aqueous solution, what is the concentration in terms of the following?

a. molarity

b. weight/volume percent

6. 100 mL of blood serum contains 5.0 mg of thyroxine, a hormone released by the thyroid gland. What is the weight/volume percent concentration?

Dilutions

1. Nitric acid (HNO₃) is a powerful and corrosive acid. When ordered from a chemical supply company, its molarity is 16 M. How much of the stock solution of nitric acid needs to be used to make 8.00 L of a 0.50 M solution?

2. You have a 0.50 L of a 0.24 M aqueous glucose solution. You add enough water to give a final volume of 1.0 L. What is the new concentration?

3. You begin with 25 mL of a 1.8 M aqueous LiCl solution and add enough water to a final volume of 350 mL. What is the new concentration?

4. A 5.0% (w/v) solution of ethyl alcohol is diluted from 50.0 mL to 75.0 mL. What is the new weight/volume percent?

5. Calculate the final volume required to prepare 0.020 % (w/v) KI starting with 10. mL of 2.0% (w/v) KI.

Chemical Equilibrium (move)

Concept Review Exercises

1. What is chemical equilibrium?

2. What does the equilibrium constant tell us?

Answers

1. The rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction.

2. The ratio of products and reactants when the system is at equilibrium.

EXERCISES

1. If the reaction H₂ + I₂ ⇌2HI is at equilibrium, do the concentrations of HI, H₂, and I₂ have to be equal?

2. Do the concentrations at equilibrium depend upon how the equilibrium was reached?

3. What does it mean if the K_eq is > 1?

4. What does it mean if the K_eq is < 1?

5. Does the equilibrium state depend on the starting concentrations?

6. Write an expression for the equilibrium constant K equation.

a. PCl₅ (g) ⇄ PCl₃ (g) + Cl₂ (g)

b. \(2\,O_{3}\,(g) \rightleftharpoons 3\,O_{2}\,(g)\)

7. Benzene is one of the compounds used as octane enhancers in unleaded gasoline. It is manufactured by the catalytic conversion of acetylene to benzene: 3C₂H₂(g)⟶C₆H₆(g). Which value of K would make this reaction most useful commercially? Explain your answer.

a. K ≈ 0.01

b. K ≈ 1

c. K ≈ 10.

8. Tell whether the reactants or the products are favored at equilibrium:

a. 2NH₃(g) ⇌ N₂(g) + 3H₂(g) K = 172

b. 2SO₃(g) ⇌ 2SO₂(g) + O₂(g) K = 0.230

c. 2NO(g) + Cl₂(g) ⇌ 2NOCl(g) K = 4.6×10⁴

d. N₂(g) + O₂(g) ⇌ 2NO(g) K = 0.050

Answers

1. No, the concentrations are constant but the concentrations do not have to be equal.

2. No.

3. More products than reactants are present at equilibrium.

4. More reactants than products present at equilibrium.

5. No. The equilibrium ratio does not depend on the initial concentrations.

6.

a. \(K=\dfrac{[PCl_3][Cl_2]}{[PCl_5]}\)

b. \(K=\dfrac{[O_2]^3}{[O_3]^2}\)

7. The answer is c. K ≈ 10.

Since \(K=\dfrac{[C_6H_6]^2}{[C_2H_2]^3}\) (K≈10), this means that C₆H₆ predominates over C₂H₂. In such a case, the reaction would be commercially feasible if the rate to equilibrium is suitable.

8.

a. products

b. reactants

c. products

d. reactants

Le Chatelier's Principle (Move)

Concept Review Exercises

1. Define Le Chatelier’s principle.

2. List the three factors types of changes that can disturb the equilibrium of a system.

Answers

1. Le Chatelier’s principle states that a system at equilibrium is disturbed, it will respond in a way to minimize the disturbance.

2. temperature, change in amount of substance, change in pressure through change in volume

EXERCISES

1. How will each change affect the reaction?

PCl₅(g) + heat ⇌PCl₃(g) + Cl₂(g)

1. Addition of PCl₅
2. Addition of Cl₂
3. Removal of PCl₃
4. Increasing temperature
5. Decreasing temperature
6. Decreasing volume

2. How will each change affect the reaction?

HNO₂(aq) ⇌H⁺(aq) + NO₂⁻(aq)

1. Removal of HNO₂
2. Addition of HCl (i.e. adding more H⁺)
3. Increasing volume
4. Decreasing volume
5. Removal of NO₂⁻
6. Addition of OH⁻ (which will react with and remove H⁺)

3. How will each change affect the reaction?

CO₂(g) + C(s) ⇌2CO(g) ΔH=172.5kJ

1. Addition of CO₂
2. Removal of CO₂
3. Increasing temperature
4. Decreasing temperature
5. Increasing volume
6. Addition of CO

4. How will each change affect the reaction?

H₂(g) + I₂(g) ⇌2HI(g) ΔH=−9.48kJ

1. Addition of H₂
2. Removal of H₂
3. Increasing temperature
4. Decreasing temperature
5. Increasing volume
6. Decreasing volume

Answers

1.

1. shift right
2. shift left
3. shift right
4. shift right
5. shift left
6. shift left

2.

1. shift left
2. shift left
3. no effect
4. no effect
5. shift right
6. shift right

3.

1. shift right
2. shift left
3. shift right
4. shift left
5. shift right
6. shift left

4.

1. shift right
2. shift left
3. shift left
4. shift right
5. no effect
6. no effect

Osmosis and Diffusion

Concept Review Exercises

1. What are some of the features of a semipermeable membrane?

2. What do the prefixes hyper, hypo, and iso mean?

1. Define the terms osmosis and diffusion

2. What do the terms isotonic, hypertonic and hypotonic mean?

3. What is crenation and hemolysis? Why do they happen?

4. To make pickles, you soak cucumbers in a concentrated salt solution called brine. Describe how this is related to osmosis.

5. Pickled cucumber tastes salty. Describe how this is related to diffusion.

6. The hypertonic solution made from dissolving Epsom salt (MgSO₄) is used as a home remedy that can help reduce the swelling and discomfort of hemorrhoids.

a. How does this hypertonic solution reduce the swelling?'

b. Will pure water have the same effect? Explain.

7. Why is it important for the dialyzing solution to be isotonic with blood?

8. Explain the process of hemodialysis.

Answers

1. A semipermeable membrane allows some substances to pass through but not others.

2. hyper – higher; hypo – lower; iso - same

EXERCISES

1. Two solutions are separated by a semipermeable membrane. Solution A contains 25.0 g of NaCl in 100.0 mL of water and solution B contains 35.0 g of NaCl in 100.0 mL of water.

1. Which one has a higher concentration?
2. Which way will water molecules flow?
3. Which volume will increase?
4. Which volume will decrease?
5. What will happen to the concentration of solution A?
6. What will happen to the concentration of solution B?

2. Two solutions with different concentrations and compositions are separated by a semipermeable membrane. The left-hand solution is a .50 M solution of MgSO₄, while the right-hand solution contains CaCl₂ at a concentration of .40 M. Determine the direction of the flow of solvent, left or right.

3. Given the following situations, wherein two tanks of different solutions are separated by a semipermeable membrane, determine the direction of the flow of solvent (water).

a. Solution A contains a 0.40 M concentration of CaCl₂, while Solution B contains a 0.45 M concentration of KI

b. Solution A contains a 1.00 M concentration of NH₄Cl, while Solution B contains a 1.00 M concentration of CH₂O

4. Cells are placed in a solution and the cells then undergo hemolysis. What can be said about the relative concentrations of solute in the cell and the solution?

5. Describe the relative concentrations inside and outside a red blood cell when crenation occurs.

6. A saltwater fish is placed in a freshwater tank. What will happen to the fish? Describe the flow of water molecules to explain the outcome.

7. What makes up the "head" region of a phospholipid? Is it hydrophobic or hydrophilic?

8. What makes up the "tail" region of a phospholipid? Is it hydrophobic or hydrophilic?

Answers

1. Two solutions are separated by a semipermeable membrane. Solution A contains 25.0 g of NaCl in 100.0 mL of water and solution B contains 35.0 g of NaCl in 100.0 mL of water.

1. Solution B
2. A →→ B
3. B
4. A
5. increase
6. decrease

2. Water (solvent) flows from left to right.

3.

a. Water flows from Solution B to Solution A.

b. Water flows from Solution B to Solution A.

4. Cells contain fluid with higher concentration than solution outside the cell.

5. Cells contain fluid with a lower concentration than the solution outside the cell.

6. Water molecules will flow from the tank water into the fish because the fish has a higher concentration of salt. If the fish absorbs too much water, it will die.

7. The "head" region is a phosphate group and it is hydrophilic.

8. The "tail" is a hydrocarbon tail and it is hydrophobic.

Additional Exercises

1. Water is considered a polar solvent. Which substances should dissolve in water?

1. methanol (CH₃OH)
2. sodium sulfate (Na₂SO₄)
3. octane (C₈H₁₈)

2. Toluene (C₆H₅CH₃) is widely used in industry as a nonpolar solvent. Which substances should dissolve in toluene?

1. water (H₂O)
2. sodium sulfate (Na₂SO₄)
3. octane (C₈H₁₈)

3. Predict which of the following compounds will be most soluble in water:

1. Ethanol: CH₃CH₂OH or Hexanol: CH₃CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂OH
2. Formic acid: HCOOH or Pentanoic acid: CH₃CH₂CH₂CH₂COOH
3. Isopropyl alcohol: CH₃CH(OH)CH₃ or Propylene glycol: CH₃CH(OH)CH₂OH

4. What happens to solubility of carbon dioxide gas (CO₂) in water when

1. the temperature is increased.
2. the temperature is decreased.

5. Explain why an opened bottle of carbonated water keeps its fizz longer if kept in a refrigerator than if kept at room temperature.

6. Calcium nitrate reacts with sodium carbonate to precipitate solid calcium carbonate:

\[Ca(NO_3)_{2(aq)} + Na_2CO_{3(aq)} \rightarrow CaCO_{3(s)} + NaNO_{3(aq)}\]

1. Balance the chemical equation.
2. How many grams of Na₂CO₃ are needed to react with 50.0 mL of 0.450 M Ca(NO₃)₂?

7. The compound HCl reacts with sodium carbonate to generate carbon dioxide gas:

\[HCl_{(aq)} + Na_2CO_{3(aq)} \rightarrow H_2O_{(ℓ)} + CO_{2(g)} + NaCl_{(aq)}\]

1. Balance the chemical equation.
2. How many grams of Na₂CO₃ are needed to react with 250.0 mL of 0.755 M HCl?
3. Assuming that the Na₂CO₃ has a negligible effect on the volume of the solution, find the osmolarity of the NaCl solution remaining after the reaction is complete.

8. Estimate the freezing point of concentrated aqueous HCl, which is usually sold as a 12 M solution. Assume complete ionization into H⁺ and Cl⁻ ions.

9. Estimate the boiling point of concentrated aqueous H₂SO₄, which is usually sold as an 18 M solution. Assume complete ionization into H⁺ and HSO₄⁻ ions.

10. Seawater can be approximated by a 3.0% m/m solution of NaCl in water. Determine the molarity and osmolarity of seawater. Assume a density of 1.0 g/mL.

11. Human blood can be approximated by a 0.90% m/m solution of NaCl in water. Determine the molarity and osmolarity of blood. Assume a density of 1.0 g/mL.

12. How much water must be added to 25.0 mL of a 1.00 M NaCl solution to make a resulting solution that has a concentration of 0.250 M?

13. Sports drinks like Gatorade are advertised as capable of resupplying the body with electrolytes lost by vigorous exercise. Find a label from a sports drink container and identify the electrolytes it contains. You should be able to identify several simple ionic compounds in the ingredients list.

14. Occasionally, we hear a sensational news story about people stranded in a lifeboat on the ocean who had to drink their own urine to survive. While distasteful, this act was probably necessary for survival. Why not simply drink the ocean water? (Hint: See Exercise 5 and Exercise 6 above. What would happen if the two solutions in these exercises were on opposite sides of a semipermeable membrane, as we would find in our cell walls?)

Answers

6.

1. Ca(NO₃)₂(aq) + Na₂CO₃(aq) → CaCO₃(s) + 2NaNO₃(aq)
2. 2.39 g

7.

a. 2HCl (aq) + Na₂CO₃(aq) → H₂O(ℓ) + CO₂(g) + 2NaCl (aq)

b. 10.0 g

c. 1.51 M

8. −45.6°C

9. 118°C

10. 0.513 M; 1.026 osmol

11. molarity = 0.15 M; osmolarity = 0.31 M

12. 75.0 mL

13. magnesium chloride, calcium chloride (answers may vary)

14. The osmotic pressure of seawater is too high. Drinking seawater would cause water to go from inside our cells into the more concentrated seawater, ultimately killing the cells.