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22.2: Simple mechanism with strong nucleophiles

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    225903
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    Transesterification

    Transesterification is the conversion of a carboxylic acid ester into a different carboxylic acid ester.

    Introduction

    When in ester is placed in a large excess of an alcohol along with presence of either an acid or a base there can be an exchange of alkoxy groups. The large excess of alcohol is used to drive the reaction forward. The most common method of transesterification is the reaction of the ester with an alcohol in the presence of an acid catalyst e.g.:

    transesterification1.png

    This reaction has the following mechanism:

    transesterification2.png

    Since both the reactants and the products are an ester and an alcohol, the reaction is reversible and the equilibrium constant is close to one.  Consequently, the Le Chatelier’s principle has to be exploited to drive the reaction to completion. The simplest way to do so is to use the alcohol as the solvent as well.

    General reaction

    1.jpg2.jpg

    Mechanism in basic conditions

    Nucleophilic attack by an alkoxide

    3.jpg

    2) Leaving group removal

    4.jpg

    Contributors

    Prof. Steven Farmer (Sonoma State University)

    Saponification

    Esters can be cleaved back into a carboxylic acid and an alcohol by reaction with water and a base. The reaction is called a saponification from the Latin sapo which means soap. The name comes from the fact that soap used to me made by the ester hydrolysis of fats. Due to the basic conditions a carboxylate ion is made rather than a carboxylic acid.

    General reaction

    1.jpg

    Example

    2.jpg

    Mechanism

    1)  Nucleophilic attack by hydroxide

    3.jpg

    2) Leaving group removal

    4a.jpg

    3)  Deprotonation

    5.jpg

    Contributors

    Prof. Steven Farmer (Sonoma State University)

    Alkaline hydrolysis of amides

    In alkaline hydrolysis the amide is heated with boiling aqueous sodium or potassium hydroxide. The nucleophilic hydroxide ion adds to the carbonyl carbon to form a tetrahedral intermediate, which, with the help of the aqueous solvent, expels the nitrogen as the free amine:

    Roberts_and_Caserio_Screenshot_24-4-3.jpg

    Reduction of carboxylic acids and their derivatives

    Reduction of acid chlorides and esters

    Acid (acyl) chlorides can be converted to aldehydes using lithium tri-tert-butoxyaluminium hydride (LiAlH(Ot-Bu)3). The hydride source (LiAlH(Ot-Bu)3) is a weaker reducing agent than lithium aluminum hydride. Because acid chlorides are highly activated they still react with the hydride source; however, the formed aldehyde will react slowly, which allows for its isolation.

    General reaction:

    1.jpg

    Example

    2.jpg

    Acid chlorides can be converted to aldehydes using lithium tri-tert-butoxyaluminium hydride (LiAlH(Ot-Bu)3). The hydride source (LiAlH(Ot-Bu)3) is a weaker reducing agent than lithium aluminum hydride. Because acid chlorides are highly activated they still react with the hydride source; however, the formed aldehyde will react slowly, which allows for its isolation.

    General Reaction:

    1.jpg

    Example

    2.jpg

     

    Esters can be converted to aldehydes using diisobutylaluminium hydride (DIBAH).  The reaction is usually carried out at -78 oC to prevent reaction with the aldehyde product.

    1.jpg

    Example

    2.jpg

     

    Esters can be converted to 1o alcohols using LiAlH4, while sodium borohydride ($$NaBH_4$$) is not a strong enough reducing agent to perform this reaction.

    1.jpg

    Example

    2.jpg

    Mechanism

    1) Nucleophilic attack by the hydride

    3.jpg

    2) Leaving group removal

    4.jpg

    3) Nucleophilic attack by the hydride anion

    5.jpg

    4) The alkoxide is protonated

    6.jpg

    Going from reactant to products simplified

    2.jpg

    Example

    3.jpg

    Reduction of amides using LiAlH4.

    General Reaction

    1.jpg

    Example: Amide Reduction

    2.jpg

    Alkyl groups attached to the nitrogen do not affect the reaction.

    3.jpg

     

    Mechanism

    1) Nucleophilic attack by the hydride

    4.jpg

    2) Leaving group removal

    5.jpg

    3) Nucleophilic attack by the hydride

    6.jpg

    Contributors

    Reduction of acid chlorides and esters using LiAlH4

    The mechanism of action of hydride reductions on acid chlorides and esters (carboxyl groups) is similar to that taking place with carbonyl compounds, except that acid chlorides and esters have a leaving group (–Cl and –OR). So the reaction does not stop at formation of the alkoxide ion as a tetrahedral intermediate, but keeps going with an internal nucleophilic displacement of the leaving group. The direct outcome of this process is formation of the corresponding carbonyl compound (aldehyde or ketone), which may or may not undergo further reduction to alcohol, depending on the nature of the reagents used and reaction conditions. The following mechanism illustrates this concept.

    Figure_8.png

    For simplicity, only the hydride ion is shown. If a full reactivity reducing agent such as $$LiAlH_4$$ is used, the reaction does not stop at the aldehyde stage, since the carbonyl carbon of the aldehyde can be attacked by another hydride equivalent. This results in formation of the primary alcohol (after hydrolysis of the alkoxide ion) as the final product.

    Figure_8.png

    The net reaction then is:

    Figure_9.png

    The reaction with an ester is similar, but the leaving group is different (R’O). Can you draw the mechanism that leads to formation of the products shown?

    Figure_10.png

    Notice that with both (and all) carboxyl groups, hydride reductions lead to formation of primary alcohols only. There is no possibility of forming secondary alcohols by this method because the carboxyl group is at the end of the carbon chain, or else the chain gets broken so that the carboxyl carbon ends up at the end of a chain in the final product.

    Figure_20.png
    Figure 1: HYDRIDE REDUCTIONS OF CARBONYL AND CARBOXYL GROUPS CHART

    Nucleophilic acyl substitution reactions of carboxylic acids

    Acid anhydride formation

    An acid anhydride (or just anhydride) is the product of formal condensation of two oxoacid molecules with the release of a water molecule. The most common anhydrides in organic chemistry are those derived from carboxylic acids at high temperatures to remove water.

    anhydride.png

    Carboxylic acids react with thionyl Chloride ($$SOCl_2$$) to form acid chlorides

    During the reaction the hydroxyl group of the carboxylic acid is converted to a chlorosulfite intermediate making it a better leaving group. The chloride anion produced during the reaction acts a nucleophile.

    1.jpg

    Example

    2.jpg

     

    Mechanism

    1) Nucleophilic attack on Thionyl Chloride

    3.jpg

    2) Removal of Cl leaving group

    4.jpg

    3) Nucleophilic attack on the carbonyl

    5.jpg

    4) Leaving group removal

    6.jpg

    5) Deprotonation

    7.jpg

    Conversion of carboxylic acids to amides

    The direct reaction of a carboxylic acid with an amine would be expected to be difficult because the basic amine would deprotonate the carboxylic acid to form a highly unreactive carboxylate.  However when the ammonium carboxylate salt is heated to a temperature above 100 oC water is driven off and an amide is formed.

    General Reaction

    1.jpg

    Going from reactants to products simply

    2.jpg

     

    Conversion of carboxylic acids to amide using DCC as an activating agent

    The direct conversion of a carboxylic acid to an amide is difficult because amines are basic and tend to convert carboxylic acids to their highly unreactive carboxylates.  In this reaction the carboxylic acid adds to the DCC molecule to form a good leaving group which can then be displaced by an amine during nucleophilic substitution.  DCC induced coupling to form an amide linkage is an important reaction in the synthesis of peptides.

    1.jpg

    Basic reaction

    Fix2.jpg

    Going from reactants to products simplified

    3.jpg

    Mechanism

    1) Deprotonation

    4.jpg

    2) Nucleophilic attack by the carboxylate

    5.jpg

    3) Nucleophilic attack by the amine

    6.jpg

    4) Proton transfer

    7.jpg

    5) Leaving group removal

    8.jpg

    Chemistry of Amides

    Preparation of amides

    Nitriles can be converted to amides. This reaction can be acid or base catalyzed

    Synth3.jpg

    Carboxylic acid can be converted to amides by using DCC as an activating agent

    Synth4.jpg

    Direct conversion of a carboxylic acid to an amide by reaction with an amine.

    Synth6.jpg

    Acid chlorides react with ammonia, 1o amines and 2o amines to form amides

    Synth1.jpg

    Acid anhydrides react with ammonia, 1o amines and 2o amines to form amides

    Synth2.jpg

    Conversion of amides into carboxylic acids: Hydrolysis

    This page describes the hydrolysis of amides under both acidic and alkaline conditions. It also describes the use of alkaline hydrolysis in testing for amides.

    What is hydrolysis?

    Technically, hydrolysis is a reaction with water. That is exactly what happens when amides are hydrolyzed in the presence of dilute acids such as dilute hydrochloric acid. The acid acts as a catalyst for the reaction between the amide and water. The alkaline hydrolysis of amides actually involves reaction with hydroxide ions, but the result is similar enough that it is still classed as hydrolysis.

    Hydrolysis under acidic conditions

    Taking ethanamide as a typical amide. If ethanamide is heated with a dilute acid (such as dilute hydrochloric acid), ethanoic acid is formed together with ammonium ions. So, if you were using hydrochloric acid, the final solution would contain ammonium chloride and ethanoic acid.

    \[ CH_3CONH_2 + H_2O + HCl \ rightarrow CH_3COOH + NH_4^+Cl^-\]

    Hydrolysis under alkaline conditions

    Also, if ethanamide is heated with sodium hydroxide solution, ammonia gas is given off and you are left with a solution containing sodium ethanoate.

    \[ CH_3CONH_2 + NaOH \ rightarrow CH_3COONa + NH_3\]

    Conversion of amides into amines: Reduction

    Amides can be converted to 1°, 2° or 3° amines using LiAlH4.

    1.jpg

    Examples

    Amide Reductions

    2.jpg

    Alkyl groups attached to the nitrogen do not affect the reaction.

    3.jpg

    Contributors

     

    Grignard reagents convert esters into tertiary alcohols

    As we saw in section 20.3, the addition of Grignard reagents converts esters to 3o alcohols.  In effect the Grignard reagent adds twice.  The initial steps of the mechanism involve a nucleophilic acyl substitution to form a ketone, which then reacts with the second mole of the Grignard reagent.

    General Reaction

    Examples

    2.jpg

    Contributors

    Prof. Steven Farmer (Sonoma State University)

    Claisen condensation

    Earlier, we examined the aldol reactions as a nucleophilic carbonyl addition in section 20.6, in which the electrophile is the carbonyl carbon of an aldehyde or ketone.  A nucleophilic enolate can also attack the carbonyl carbon of a carboxylic acid derivative in a nucleophilic acyl substitution reaction.image070.pngThis is referred to as a Claisen condensation, after the German chemist Ludwig Claisen (1851-1930).

    Basic reaction

    download-4.jpeg

    Going from reactants to products simply download-5.jpeg

     

    Example: Claisen Condensation

    222.jpeg
    ex.jpeg

    Claisen condensation mechanism

    1) Enolate formation

    download-6.jpeg

    2) Nucleophilic attack

    21.jpeg

    3) Removal of leaving group

    3.jpeg

    Dieckmann Condensation

    A diester can undergo an intramolecular reaction called a Dieckmann condensation.

    Example: Dieckman Condensation

    downex.jpeg

    Crossed Claisen condensation

    Claisen condensations between different ester reactants are called CrossedClaisen reactions. Crossed Claisen reactions in which both reactants can serve as donors and acceptors generally give complex mixtures. Because of this most Crossed Claisen reactions are usually not performed unless one reactant has no alpha hydrogens.

    Example : Crossed Claisen Condensation

    download-7.jpeg

    Contributors

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