4.4: σ, π, and δ orbitals
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Inorganic compounds use s, p, and d orbitals (and more rarely f orbitals) to make bonding and antibonding combinations. These combinations result in σ, π, and δ bonds (and antibonds).
You are already familiar with σ and π bonding in organic compounds. In inorganic chemistry, π bonds can be made from p- and/or d-orbitals. δ bonds are more rare and occur by face-to-face overlap of d-orbitals, as in the ion Re 2 Cl 8 2 - . The fact that the Cl atoms are eclipsed in this anion is evidence of δ bonding.
Some possible σ (top row), π (bottom row), and δ bonding combinations (right) of s, p, and d orbitals are sketched below. In each case, we can make bonding or antibonding combinations, depending on the signs of the AO wavefunctions. Because pπ-pπ bonding involves sideways overlap of p-orbitals, it is most commonly observed with second-row elements (C, N, O). π-bonded compounds of heavier elements are rare because the larger cores of the atoms prevent good π-overlap. For this reason, compounds containing C=C double bonds are very common, but those with Si=Si bonds are rare. δ bonds are generally quite weak compared to σ and π bonds. Compounds with metal-metal δ bonds occur in the middle of the transition series.
Transition metal d-orbitals can also form σ bonds, typically with s-p hybrid orbitals of appropriate symmetry on ligands. For example, phosphines (R 3 P:) are good σ donors in complexes with transition metals, as shown below.
pπ-dπ bonding is also important in transition metal complexes. In metal carbonyl complexes such as Ni(CO) 4 and Mo(CO) 6 , there is sideways overlap between filled metal d-orbitals and the empty π-antibonding orbitals (the LUMO) of the CO molecule, as shown in the figure below. This interaction strengthens the metal-carbon bond but weakens the carbon-oxygen bond. The C-O infrared stretching frequency is diagnostic of the strength of the bond and can be used to estimate the degree to which electrons are transferred from the metal d-orbital to the CO π-antibonding orbital.
The same kind of backbonding occurs with phosphine complexes, which have empty π orbitals, as shown at the right. Transition metal complexes containing halide ligands can also have significant pπ-dπ bonding, in which a filled pπ orbital on the ligand donates electron density to an unfilled metal dπ orbital. We will encounter these bonding situations in Chapter 5.