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- https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/General_Chemistry_Supplement_(Eames)/Lewis_Bonding_Theory/The_Two-Electron_BondIn Lewis' theory, there is no fundamental difference between covalent and ionic bonding. (Actually, he invented the idea of covalent bonding, while Langmuir invented the word "covalent," but it had be...In Lewis' theory, there is no fundamental difference between covalent and ionic bonding. (Actually, he invented the idea of covalent bonding, while Langmuir invented the word "covalent," but it had been known for a while that molecules made of only non-metals had different properties from those made of metals and non-metals together). Electrons can be shared between atoms, and the sharing is more equal if the atoms are similar or the same, and more unequal if the atoms are different.
- https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_Chemistry/Introductory_Chemistry_(CK-12)/09%3A_Covalent_Bonding/9.15%3A_Molecular_Shapes_-_Lone_Pair(s)_on_Central_AtomThis page explains how lone pair electrons influence the molecular geometry of compounds, highlighting examples like ammonia (NH₃) and water (H₂O) with their trigonal pyramidal and bent shapes, respec...This page explains how lone pair electrons influence the molecular geometry of compounds, highlighting examples like ammonia (NH₃) and water (H₂O) with their trigonal pyramidal and bent shapes, respectively. It also discusses sulfur tetrafluoride (SF₄) and its distorted tetrahedral geometry.
- https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Molecular_Geometry/Bent_Molecular_GeometryThe molecule that is made up of 4 equally spaced sp3 hybrid orbitals forming bond angles of approximately 109.5o. The shape of the orbitals is tetrahedral. Two of the orbitals contain lone pairs of el...The molecule that is made up of 4 equally spaced sp3 hybrid orbitals forming bond angles of approximately 109.5o. The shape of the orbitals is tetrahedral. Two of the orbitals contain lone pairs of electrons. The two atoms connected to the central atom form a molecule with a bent shape.
- https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Molecular_Geometry/Molecular_Geometry_OverviewAccording to VSEPR theory, molecular geometry can be predicted by starting with the electron pair geometry about the central atom and adding atoms to some or all of the electron pairs. In this case an...According to VSEPR theory, molecular geometry can be predicted by starting with the electron pair geometry about the central atom and adding atoms to some or all of the electron pairs. In this case an extra step is needed to to translate from electron pair geometry to the final molecular geometry, since only the positions of bonded atoms are considered in molecular geometry.
- https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_Chemistry/Introductory_Chemistry_(CK-12)/09%3A_Covalent_Bonding/9.13%3A_VSEPR_TheoryThis page discusses the water molecule's bent shape, which enhances its polarity and boiling point, crucial for supporting life. It highlights the historical challenge in explaining this shape compare...This page discusses the water molecule's bent shape, which enhances its polarity and boiling point, crucial for supporting life. It highlights the historical challenge in explaining this shape compared to carbon dioxide. In 1956, VSEPR theory was introduced by R.J. Gillespie and R.S. Nyholm, providing a method to predict molecular geometry by considering electron pair repulsion, aiding in the understanding of molecular structure based on bonding and lone electron pairs.
- https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Analytical_Chemistry/Analytical_Chemistry_2.1_(Harvey)/16%3A_Appendix/16.01%3A_NormalityNormality measures concentration based on the equivalents of a chemical species reacting stoichiometrically with another species. The number of equivalents is determined by a reaction unit, specific t...Normality measures concentration based on the equivalents of a chemical species reacting stoichiometrically with another species. The number of equivalents is determined by a reaction unit, specific to the type of reaction: charge for precipitation, protons for acid-base, electron pairs for complexation, and electrons for redox reactions. Normality (N) is linked to molarity (M) through the formula \(N = n \times M\), where n represents the number of equivalents.
- https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Molecular_Geometry/Shapes_of_Molecules_and_IonsThe shape of a molecule or ion is governed by the arrangement of the electron pairs around the central atom. The 5 electron pairs take up a shape described as a trigonal bipyramid - three of the fluor...The shape of a molecule or ion is governed by the arrangement of the electron pairs around the central atom. The 5 electron pairs take up a shape described as a trigonal bipyramid - three of the fluorines are in a plane at 120° to each other; the other two are at right angles to this plane. The bond to the fluorine in the plane is at 90° to the bonds above and below the plane, so there are a total of 2 bond pair-bond pair repulsions.
