Skip to main content
Chemistry LibreTexts

5.11: Nucleophilic Addition of Water- Hydration

  • Page ID
    469392
  • \( \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)

    \( \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash {#1}}} \)

    \( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)

    ( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)

    \( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\) \( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)

    \( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\) \( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)

    \( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\)

    \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)

    \( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\)

    \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)

    \( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\)

    \( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)

    \( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\)

    \( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)

    \( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\)

    \( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)

    \( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\)

    \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \( \newcommand{\AA}{\unicode[.8,0]{x212B}}\)

    \( \newcommand{\vectorA}[1]{\vec{#1}}      % arrow\)

    \( \newcommand{\vectorAt}[1]{\vec{\text{#1}}}      % arrow\)

    \( \newcommand{\vectorB}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)

    \( \newcommand{\vectorC}[1]{\textbf{#1}} \)

    \( \newcommand{\vectorD}[1]{\overrightarrow{#1}} \)

    \( \newcommand{\vectorDt}[1]{\overrightarrow{\text{#1}}} \)

    \( \newcommand{\vectE}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash{\mathbf {#1}}}} \)

    \( \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)

    \( \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash {#1}}} \)

    \(\newcommand{\avec}{\mathbf a}\) \(\newcommand{\bvec}{\mathbf b}\) \(\newcommand{\cvec}{\mathbf c}\) \(\newcommand{\dvec}{\mathbf d}\) \(\newcommand{\dtil}{\widetilde{\mathbf d}}\) \(\newcommand{\evec}{\mathbf e}\) \(\newcommand{\fvec}{\mathbf f}\) \(\newcommand{\nvec}{\mathbf n}\) \(\newcommand{\pvec}{\mathbf p}\) \(\newcommand{\qvec}{\mathbf q}\) \(\newcommand{\svec}{\mathbf s}\) \(\newcommand{\tvec}{\mathbf t}\) \(\newcommand{\uvec}{\mathbf u}\) \(\newcommand{\vvec}{\mathbf v}\) \(\newcommand{\wvec}{\mathbf w}\) \(\newcommand{\xvec}{\mathbf x}\) \(\newcommand{\yvec}{\mathbf y}\) \(\newcommand{\zvec}{\mathbf z}\) \(\newcommand{\rvec}{\mathbf r}\) \(\newcommand{\mvec}{\mathbf m}\) \(\newcommand{\zerovec}{\mathbf 0}\) \(\newcommand{\onevec}{\mathbf 1}\) \(\newcommand{\real}{\mathbb R}\) \(\newcommand{\twovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\ctwovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\threevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cthreevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\mattwo}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{rr}#1 \amp #2 \\ #3 \amp #4 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\laspan}[1]{\text{Span}\{#1\}}\) \(\newcommand{\bcal}{\cal B}\) \(\newcommand{\ccal}{\cal C}\) \(\newcommand{\scal}{\cal S}\) \(\newcommand{\wcal}{\cal W}\) \(\newcommand{\ecal}{\cal E}\) \(\newcommand{\coords}[2]{\left\{#1\right\}_{#2}}\) \(\newcommand{\gray}[1]{\color{gray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\lgray}[1]{\color{lightgray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\rank}{\operatorname{rank}}\) \(\newcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\col}{\text{Col}}\) \(\renewcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\nul}{\text{Nul}}\) \(\newcommand{\var}{\text{Var}}\) \(\newcommand{\corr}{\text{corr}}\) \(\newcommand{\len}[1]{\left|#1\right|}\) \(\newcommand{\bbar}{\overline{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bhat}{\widehat{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bperp}{\bvec^\perp}\) \(\newcommand{\xhat}{\widehat{\xvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\vhat}{\widehat{\vvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\uhat}{\widehat{\uvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\what}{\widehat{\wvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\Sighat}{\widehat{\Sigma}}\) \(\newcommand{\lt}{<}\) \(\newcommand{\gt}{>}\) \(\newcommand{\amp}{&}\) \(\definecolor{fillinmathshade}{gray}{0.9}\)

    It has been demonstrated that water, in the presence of an acid or a base, adds rapidly to the carbonyl group of aldehydes and ketones establishing a reversible equilibrium with a hydrate (geminal-diol, gem-diol, or 1,1-diol). The term hydrate implies the addition of water. The word germinal or abbreviation gem comes from the Latin word for twin, geminus.

    conversion of aldehyde or ketone to diol can be catalyzed by acid or base.svg

    Factors Affecting the Hydrate Equilibrium

    The equilibrium for hydrate formation depends both on steric and electrical factors of the carbonyl as discussed in the previous section. In most cases the resulting gem-diol is unstable relative to the reactants and cannot be isolated. Exceptions to this rule exist, one being formaldehyde where the small size of the hydrogen substituents relative to aldehydes and ketones favor hydrate formation. Thus, a solution of formaldehyde in water (formalin) is almost exclusively the hydrate, or polymers of the hydrate. The addition of electron donating alkyl groups stabilized the partial positive charge on the carbonyl carbon and decreases the amount of gem-diol product at equilibrium. Because of this ketones tend to form less than 1% of the hydrate at equilibrium.

    formaldehyde typically exist as ~100% gem-diol, while other aldehydes typically exist as <1% gem-diol.svg

    Equilibrium Distribution of Common Aldehydes and Ketones with their Hydrate Forms

    comparison of relative equilibrium distribution of formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, and acetone with their hydrate forms.svg

    Likewise, the addition of strong electron-withdrawing groups destabilizes the carbonyl and tends to form stable hydrates. Two examples of this are chloral, and 1,2,3-indantrione. It should be noted that chloral hydrate is a sedative and has been added to alcoholic beverages to make a “knock-out” drink also called a Mickey Finn. Also, ninhydrin is commonly used by forensic investigators to reveal fingerprints.

    dipole moments of chloral and its conversion to chloral hydrate.svg

    dipole moments of 1,2,3-indantrione and its conversion to ninhydrin.svg

    Reversibility of Hydrate Formation

    Isolation of hydrates is difficult because the reaction is reversible. Removal of water from the hydrate can cause the conversion of a gem-diol back to the corresponding carbonyl.

    reversibility of hydrate formation.svg

    Acid or Base Catalyzed Hydrate Formation

    The nucleophilic addition of water to a carbonyl to form a hydrate is usually slow under neutral condition (pH = 7). The rate can be significantly increased through the addition of an acid or base as a catalyst.

    The addition of an acid or base changes the mechanism and promote the nucleophilic addition of water to a carbonyl to form a hydrate. Basic conditions speed up the reaction because hydroxide is a better nucleophile than water. Acidic conditions speed up the reaction because the carbonyl becomes protonated. Protonation increases the polarity of the carbonyl bond which increase the partial positive charge on the carbon making it more electrophilic.

    resonance structures of protonated ketone.svg

    Predicting the Product of a Hydration

    Overall, the C=O of the carbonyl in the starting material is removed and replaced by two single bonds both of which are attached to the original carbonyl carbon. Both of these single bonds are attached to OH groups in the product.

    breakdown of bonds formed and broken in conversion of aldehyde or ketone to hydrate.svg

    Example \(\PageIndex{1}\)

    acid-catalyzed conversion of cyclopentanone to cyclopentane-1,1-diol.svg

    base-catalyzed conversion of acetaldehyde to ethane-1,1-diol.svg

    Mechanism of Acid or Base Catalyzed Hydrate Formation

    Edit section

    Basic conditions

    1) Basic conditions means there is a significant amount of hydroxide present. Hydroxide is a better nucleophile than water which speeds up the reaction. The negatively charged hydroxide forms a single bond with the electrophilic carbonyl carbon. This pushes the two electrons of the pi bond onto the electronegative oxygen forming an alkoxide ion intermediate.

    gem-diol basic formation mechanism step 1.svg

    2) Water acts as an acid and protonates the alkoxide ion to form a neutral hydrate while also regenerating hydroxide. The fact that hydroxide is not being used during the reaction is consistent with it acting as a catalyst.


    gem-diol basic formation mechansim step 2.svg

    Acidic conditions

    1) Acidic conditions means there is a significant amount of hydronium present. Hydronium protonates the carbonyl oxygen thereby making the carbonyl carbon more electrophilic. After protonation the oxygen becomes positively charged.

    gem-diol acidic formation mechansim step 1.svg

    2) Under acidic conditions the most nucleophilic species is water. Water forms a single bond with the electrophilic carbon. This pushes the two electrons in the carbonyl pi bond onto the electronegative oxygen. The oxygen from the carbonyl becomes neutral while the oxygen from the water nucleophile become positively charged.

    gem-diol acidic formation mechansim step 2.svg

    3) Water acts as a base and deprotonates the intermediate to produce the neutrally charged hydrate while regenerating hydronium. The fact that hydronium is not being used during the reaction is consistent with it acting as a catalyst.

    gem-diol acidic formation mechansim step 3.svg

    Contributors and Attributions


    5.11: Nucleophilic Addition of Water- Hydration is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Steven Farmer & Dietmar Kennepohl.