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17.2: Vitamins, Minerals, Fluids, and Electrolytes

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    304013
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    Learning Objective

    List the dietary requirements for vitamins and minerals.

    Learn about food supplements.

    Learn about water balance.

    The importance of vitamins and minerals (micronutrients) in metabolism has been discussed in detail in section 17.4. Micronutrient needs in adults differ slightly according to sex. Young men and women who are very athletic and perspire a great deal also require extra sodium, potassium, and magnesium. Males require more of vitamins C and K, along with thiamine, riboflavin, and niacin. Females require extra iron due to menstruation. Therefore, it can be beneficial for some young adults to follow a daily multivitamin regimen to help meet nutrient needs. But as always, it is important to remember “food first, supplements second.” Table \(\PageIndex{1}\) shows the micronutrient recommendations for adult men and women.

    Table \(\PageIndex{1}\) Micronutrient Levels during Adulthood.
    Nutrient Adult Males Adult Females
    Vitamin A (mcg) 900.0 700.0
    Vitamin B6 (mg) 1.3 1.3
    Vitamin B12 (mcg) 2.4 2.4
    Vitamin C (mg) 90.0 75.0
    Vitamin D (mcg) 5.0 5.0
    Vitamin E (mg) 15.0 15.0
    Vitamin K (mcg) 120.0 90.0
    Calcium (mg) 1,000.0 1,000.0
    Folate (mcg) 400.0 400.0
    Iron (mg) 8.0 18.0
    Magnesium (mg) 400.0 310.0
    Niacin (mg) 16.0 14.0
    Phosphorus (mg) 700.0 700.0
    Riboflavin (mg) 1.3 1.1
    Selenium 55.0 55.0
    Thiamin (mg) 1.2 1.1
    Zinc (mg) 11.0 8.0

    Source: Institute of Medicine. 2006. Dietary Reference Intakes: The Essential Guide to Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/11537. Accessed December 10, 2017.

    Food Supplements and Food Replacements

    Current trends also include the use of supplementation to promote health and wellness. Vitamins, minerals, herbal remedies, and supplements of all kinds constitute big business and many of their advertising claims suggest that optimal health and eternal youth are just a pill away. Dietary supplements can be macronutrient (amino acids, proteins, essential fatty acids), micronutrient (vitamins and minerals that promote healthy body functions), probiotic (beneficial bacteria such as the kind found in the intestines), and herbally ( often target a specific body part, such as bones) based.

    Some public health officials recommend a daily multivitamin due to the poor diet of most North Americans. The US Preventive Task Force also recommends a level of folate intake which can be easier to achieve with a supplement. In addition, the following people may benefit from taking daily vitamin and mineral supplements:[1]

    • Women who are pregnant or breastfeeding
    • Premenopausal women who may need extra calcium and iron
    • Older adults
    • People with health issues that affect their ability to eat
    • Vegetarians, vegans, and others avoiding certain food groups

    However, before you begin using dietary supplementation, consider that the word supplement denotes something being added. Vitamins, minerals, and other assorted remedies should be considered as extras. They are add-ons—not replacements—for a healthy diet. As food naturally contains nutrients in its proper package, remember that food should always be your primary source of nutrients. When considering taking supplements, it is important to recognize possible drawbacks that are specific to each kind:[2]

    • Micronutrient Supplements: Some vitamins and minerals are toxic at high doses. Therefore, it is vital to adhere to the Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (UL) so as not to consume too much of any vitamin. For example, too much vitamin A is toxic to the liver. Symptoms of vitamin A toxicity can include tinnitus (ringing in the ears), blurred vision, hair loss, and skin rash. Too much niacin can cause a peptic ulcer, hyperglycemia, dizziness, and gout.
    • Herbal Supplements: Some herbs cause side effects, such as heart palpitations and high blood pressure, and must be taken very carefully. Also, some herbs have contraindications with certain medicines. For example, Valerian and St. John’s Wort negatively interact with certain prescription medications, most notably antidepressants. Additionally, there is a real risk of overdosing on herbs because they do not come with warning labels or package inserts.
    • Amino Acid Supplements: Certain amino acid supplements, which are often taken by bodybuilders among others, can increase the risk of consuming too much protein. An occasional amino acid drink in the place of a meal is not a problem. However, problems may arise if you add the supplement to your existing diet. Most Americans receive two to three times the amount of protein required on a daily basis from their existing diets—taking amino acid supplements just adds to the excess. Also, certain amino acids share the same transport systems in the absorption process; therefore, a concentrated excess of one amino acid obtained from a supplement may increase the probability of decreased absorption of another amino acid that uses the same transport system. This could lead to deficiency in the competing amino acid.

    Supplement Claims and Restrictions

    The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates supplements, but it treats them like food rather than pharmaceuticals. Dietary supplements must meet the FDA’s Good Manufacturing Standards, but are not required to meet the standards for drugs, although some companies do so voluntarily. Also, although supplement manufacturers are allowed to say a particular ingredient may reduce the risk of a disease or disorder, or that it might specifically target certain body systems, these claims are not approved by the FDA. This is why labels that make structural and functional claims are required to carry a disclaimer saying the product is not intended “to diagnose, treat, cure, or prevent any disease.” In addition, in the United States, supplements are taken off the market only after the FDA has proven that they are hazardous.[3] To revisit the topic of structural and functional claims refer back to Chapter 12 “Nutrition Applications”.

    Before Taking Supplements

    The phrase caveat emptor means “buyer beware,” and it is important to keep the term in mind when considering supplementation. Just because a product is “natural” does not mean it can’t be harmful or dangerous, particularly if used inappropriately. The following are helpful questions to explore before deciding to take a supplement:

    • Does the scientific community understand how this supplement works and are all its effects well known?
    • Is there proof that the supplement actually performs in the manner that it claims?
    • Does this supplement interact with food or medication?
    • Is taking this supplement necessary for my health?
    • Is the supplement affordable?
    • Is the supplement safe and free from contaminants?

    Lastly, please remember that a supplement is only as good as the diet that accompanies it. We cannot overstate the importance of eating a healthy, well-balanced diet designed to provide all of the necessary nutrients. Food contains many more beneficial substances, such as phytochemicals and fiber, that promote good health and cannot be duplicated with a pill or a regimen of supplements. Therefore, vitamins and other dietary supplements should never be a substitute for food. Nutrients should always be derived from food first.

    Food: The Best Medicine

    Poor dietary choices and a sedentary lifestyle account for about 300–600 thousand deaths every year according to the US Department of Health and Human Services. That number is thirteen times higher than the deaths due to gun violence.[4] The typical North American diet is too high in saturated fat, sodium, and sugar, and too low in fiber in the form of whole fruits, vegetables, and whole grains to keep people healthy. With so many threats to optimal health it is vital to address those factors that are under your control, namely dietary and lifestyle choices. A diet that supplies your body with the needed energy and nutrients daily will result in efficient body functioning and in protection from disease. Making sound nutritional choices can also provide support for individuals undergoing treatment for short-term or chronic conditions. Finding a balance between nutritional needs with concerns about drug interactions can hasten recovery, improve quality of life, and minimize the side effects from treatment protocols.


    Body Fluids and Electrolytes

    Maintaining the right level of water in your body is crucial to survival, as either too little or too much water in your body will result in less-than-optimal functioning. One mechanism to help ensure the body maintains water balance is thirst. Thirst is the result of your body’s physiology telling your brain to initiate the thought to take a drink. Sensory proteins detect when your mouth is dry, your blood volume too low, or blood electrolyte concentrations too high and send signals to the brain stimulating the conscious feeling to drink.

    The latest National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, covering the period from 2005 to 2008, reports that about 50 percent of Americans consume sugary drinks daily.

    Excess consumption of sugary soft drinks have been scientifically proven to increase the risk for dental caries, obesity, Type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. In addition to sugary soft drinks, beverages containing added sugars include fruit drinks, sports drinks, energy drinks and sweetened bottled waters.

    Sports drinks are designed to rehydrate the body after excessive fluid depletion. Electrolytes in particular promote normal rehydration to prevent fatigue during physical exertion. Are they a good choice for achieving the recommended fluid intake? Are they performance and endurance enhancers like they claim? Who should drink them?

    Typically, eight ounces of a sports drink provides between fifty and eighty calories and 14 to 17 grams of carbohydrate, mostly in the form of simple sugars. Sodium and potassium are the most commonly included electrolytes in sports drinks, with the levels of these in sports drinks being highly variable. The American College of Sports Medicine says a sports drink should contain 125 milligrams of sodium per 8 ounces as it is helpful in replenishing some of the sodium lost in sweat and promotes fluid uptake in the small intestine, improving hydration.

    Gatorade

    Gatorade was created in 1965, by a team of scientists at the University of Florida College of Medicine, including Robert Cade, Dana Shires, Harry James Free, and Alejandro de Quesada. Following a request from Florida Gators football head coach Ray Graves, Gatorade was created to help athletes by acting as a replacement for body fluids lost during physical exertion. The earliest version of the beverage consisted of a mixture of water,sodium, sugar, potassium, phosphate, and lemon juice.Ten players on the University of Florida football team tested the first version of Gatorade during practices and games in 1965, and the tests were deemed successful.

    The University of Florida researchers initially considered naming their product "Gator-Aid". They settled on the name Gatorade, however, since the researchers wanted to create a commercial product, not a scientifically-validated one.

    19A3.jpg

    University of Florida football player Chip Hinton testing Gatorade in 1965, pictured next to the leader of its team of inventors, Robert Cade. Source: Wikipedia

    Regulation of Daily Water Input

    Total water output per day averages 2.5 liters (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). This must be balanced with water input. Our tissues produce around 300 milliliters of water per day through metabolic processes. The remainder of water output must be balanced by drinking fluids and eating solid foods. The average fluid consumption per day is 1.5 liters, and water gained from solid foods approximates 700 milliliters.

    fig 3.4.1.jpg
    Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) Daily fluid loss and gain.

    The Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine (IOM) has set the Adequate Intake (AI) for water for adult males at 3.7 liters (15.6 cups) and at 2.7 liters (11 cups) for adult females. These intakes are higher than the average intake of 2.2 liters. It is important to note that the AI for water includes water from all dietary sources; that is, water coming from food as well as beverages. People are not expected to consume 15.6 or 11 cups of pure water per day. In America, approximately 20 percent of dietary water comes from solid foods.

    Consequences of Deficiency or Excess

    As with all nutrients, having too much or too little water has health consequences. Excessive water intake can dilute the levels of critical electrolytes in the blood. Water intoxication is rare, however when it does happen, it can be deadly. On the other hand, having too little water in the body is common. In fact, diarrhea-induced dehydration is the number-one cause of early-childhood death worldwide. In this section we will discuss subtle changes in electrolytes that compromise health on a chronic basis.

    High-Hydration Status: Water Intoxication/ Hyponatremia

    Water intoxication mainly affects athletes who overhydrate. Water intoxication is extremely rare, primarily because healthy kidneys are capable of excreting up to one liter of excess water per hour. Overhydration was unfortunately demonstrated in 2007 by Jennifer Strange, who drank six liters of water in three hours while competing in a “Hold Your Wee for a Wii” radio contest. Afterward she complained of a headache, vomited, and died.

    Low-Hydration Status: Dehydration

    Dehydration refers to water loss from the body without adequate replacement. It can result from either water loss or electrolyte imbalance, or, most commonly, both. Dehydration can be caused by prolonged physical activity without adequate water intake, heat exposure, excessive weight loss, vomiting, diarrhea, blood loss, infectious diseases, malnutrition, electrolyte imbalances, and very high glucose levels. Physiologically, dehydration decreases blood volume. The water in cells moves into the blood to compensate for the low blood-volume, and cells shrink. Signs and symptoms of dehydration include thirst, dizziness, fainting, headaches, low blood-pressure, fatigue, low to no urine output, and, in extreme cases, loss of consciousness and death. Signs and symptoms are usually noticeable after about 2 percent of total body water is lost.

    Chronic dehydration is linked to higher incidences of some diseases. There is strong evidence that low-hydration status increases the risk for kidney stones and exercise-induced asthma. There is also some scientific evidence that chronic dehydration increases the risk for kidney disease, heart disease, and the development of hyperglycemia in people with diabetes. Older people often suffer from chronic dehydration as their thirst mechanism is no longer as sensitive as it used to be.

    Summary

    • Micronutrient needs in adults differ slightly according to sex. Young men and women who are very athletic and perspire a great deal also require extra sodium, potassium, and magnesium. Males require more of vitamins C and K, along with thiamine, riboflavin, and niacin. Females require extra iron due to menstruation.
    • Current trends also include the use of supplementation to promote health and wellness. Dietary supplements can be macronutrient (amino acids, proteins, essential fatty acids), micronutrient (vitamins and minerals that promote healthy body functions), probiotic (beneficial bacteria such as the kind found in the intestines), and herbally ( often target a specific body part, such as bones) based.
    • The Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine (IOM) has set the Adequate Intake (AI) for water for adult males at 3.7 liters (15.6 cups) and at 2.7 liters (11 cups) for adult females. It is important to note that the AI for water includes water from all dietary sources; that is, water coming from food as well as beverages.
    • Total water output per day averages 2.5 liters which must be balanced with water input.
    • Excessive water intake can dilute the levels of critical electrolytes in the blood. Water intoxication is rare, however when it does happen, it can be deadly. On the other hand, having too little water in the body is common.

    17.2: Vitamins, Minerals, Fluids, and Electrolytes is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.

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