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10.3: Electrochemical Potential

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    164790
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    Skills to Develop

    • To calculate the standard cell potential based on the reduction potentials of each half reaction.
    • To use redox potentials to predict whether a reaction is spontaneous.

    In a galvanic cell, current is produced when electrons flow externally through the circuit from the anode to the cathode because of a difference in potential energy between the two electrodes in the electrochemical cell. In the Zn/Cu system, the valence electrons in zinc have a substantially higher potential energy than the valence electrons in copper because of shielding of the s electrons of zinc by the electrons in filled d orbitals. Hence electrons flow spontaneously from zinc to copper(II) ions, forming zinc(II) ions and metallic copper. Just like water flowing spontaneously downhill, which can be made to do work by forcing a waterwheel, the flow of electrons from a higher potential energy to a lower one can also be harnessed to perform work.

    imageedit_2_9346882984.jpg

    Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Potential Energy Difference in the Zn/Cu System. The potential energy of a system consisting of metallic \(Zn\) and aqueous Cu2+ ions is greater than the potential energy of a system consisting of metallic Cu and aqueous \(Zn^{2+}\) ions. Much of this potential energy difference is because the valence electrons of metallic Zn are higher in energy than the valence electrons of metallic Cu. Because the Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) system is higher in energy by 1.10 V than the Cu(s) + Zn2+(aq) system, energy is released when electrons are transferred from Zn to Cu2+ to form Cu and Zn2+.

    Because the potential energy of valence electrons differs greatly from one substance to another, the voltage of a galvanic cell depends partly on the identity of the reacting substances. If we construct a galvanic cell similar to the one in part (a) in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) but instead of copper use a strip of cobalt metal and 1 M Co2+ in the cathode compartment, the measured voltage is not 1.10 V but 0.51 V. Thus we can conclude that the difference in potential energy between the valence electrons of cobalt and zinc is less than the difference between the valence electrons of copper and zinc by 0.59 V.

    The measured potential of a cell also depends strongly on the concentrations of the reacting species and the temperature of the system. To develop a scale of relative potentials that will allow us to predict the direction of an electrochemical reaction and the magnitude of the driving force for the reaction, the potentials for oxidations and reductions of different substances must be measured under comparable conditions. To do this, chemists use the standard cell potential (E°cell), defined as the potential of a cell measured under standard conditions—that is, with all species in their standard states (1 M for solutions, 1 atm for gases, pure solids or pure liquids for other substances) and at a fixed temperature, usually 25°C.

    Measured redox potentials depend on the potential energy of valence electrons, the concentrations of the species in the reaction, and the temperature of the system.

    Measuring Standard Electrode Potentials

    It is physically impossible to measure the potential of a single electrode: only the difference between the potentials of two electrodes can be measured (this is analogous to measuring absolute enthalpies or free energies; recall that only differences in enthalpy and free energy can be measured.) We can, however, compare the standard cell potentials for two different galvanic cells that have one kind of electrode in common. This allows us to measure the potential difference between two dissimilar electrodes. For example, the measured standard cell potential (E°) for the Zn/Cu system is 1.10 V, whereas E° for the corresponding Zn/Co system is 0.51 V. This implies that the potential difference between the Co and Cu electrodes is 1.10 V − 0.51 V = 0.59 V. In fact, that is exactly the potential measured under standard conditions if a cell is constructed with the following cell diagram:

    \[Co_{(s)} ∣ Co^{2+}(aq, 1 M)∥Cu^{2+}(aq, 1 M) ∣ Cu (s)\;\;\; E°=0.59\; V \]

    This cell diagram corresponds to the oxidation of a cobalt anode and the reduction of Cu2+ in solution at the copper cathode. This example illustrates that the standard cell potential E° can be predicted if we have information about the potentials of each of the two half-reactions involved in the redox reaction. 

    Although it is impossible to measure the potential of a half-reaction directly, we can choose a reference electrode whose potential is defined as 0 V under standard conditions. The standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) is universally used for this purpose and is assigned a standard potential of 0 V. It consists of a strip of platinum wire in contact with an aqueous solution containing 1 M H+. The [H+] in solution is in equilibrium with H2 gas at a pressure of 1 atm at the Pt-solution interface (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)). Protons are reduced or hydrogen molecules are oxidized at the Pt surface according to the following equation:

    \[2H^+_{(aq)}+2e^− \rightleftharpoons H_{2(g)} \]

    One especially attractive feature of the SHE is that the Pt metal electrode is not consumed during the reaction.

    19.6.jpg

    Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): The Standard Hydrogen Electrode. The SHE consists of platinum wire that is connected to a Pt surface in contact with an aqueous solution containing 1 M H+ in equilibrium with H2 gas at a pressure of 1 atm. In the molecular view, the Pt surface catalyzes the oxidation of hydrogen molecules to protons or the reduction of protons to hydrogen gas. (Water is omitted for clarity.) The standard potential of the SHE is arbitrarily assigned a value of 0 V.

    With the SHE defined as having a potential of 0 V, the potential measured for any electrochemical cell where the SHE is at the anode and another half-reaction at the cathode  under standard conditions is defined as the standard electrode potential for that half-reaction. By convention, these standard potentials are always listed for a reaction written as a reduction, not as an oxidation, to be able to compare standard potentials for different substances; thus, they are also known as standard reduction potentials. A table of standard reduction potentials for a wide variety of substances can be found in Table P1.

    Standard reduction potentials allow us to predict the standard cell potential for any combination of two half-reactions by simple subtraction. Recall that half-reactions are written to show the reduction and oxidation reactions that actually occur in the cell, so the overall cell reaction is written as the sum of the two half-reactions. Since standard potentials are written as reductions, the sign of E°_{anode} is reversed (since the half-reaction there is an oxidation instead of a reduction), and the standard cell potential (E°cell) is therefore the difference between the tabulated reduction potentials of the two half-reactions:

    \[E°_{cell} = E°_{cathode} − E°_{anode} \label{20.4.2}\]

    According to this equation, when we know the standard potential for any single half-reaction, we can obtain the value of the standard potential of many other half-reactions by measuring the standard potential of the corresponding cell.

    The overall cell potential is the difference between the reduction potentials of the two half-reactions.

    19.7.jpg
    Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\): Determining a Standard Electrode Potential Using a Standard Hydrogen Electrode. The voltmeter shows that the standard cell potential of a galvanic cell consisting of a SHE and a Zn/Zn2+ couple is \(E°_{cell}\) = 0.76 V. Because the zinc electrode in this cell dissolves spontaneously to form Zn2+(aq) ions while H+(aq) ions are reduced to H2 at the platinum surface, the standard electrode potential of the Zn2+/Zn couple is −0.76 V.

    Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\) shows a galvanic cell that consists of a SHE in one beaker and a Zn strip in another beaker containing a solution of Zn2+ ions. When the circuit is closed, the voltmeter indicates a potential of 0.76 V. The zinc electrode begins to dissolve to form Zn2+, and H+ ions are reduced to H2 in the other compartment. Thus the hydrogen electrode is the cathode, and the zinc electrode is the anode. The diagram for this galvanic cell is as follows:

    \[Zn_{(s)}∣Zn^{2+}_{(aq)}∥H^+(aq, 1 M)∣H_2(g, 1 atm)∣Pt_{(s)} \label{20.4.4}\]

     

    The half-reactions that actually occur in the cell and their corresponding electrode potentials are as follows:

    • cathode: \[2H^+_{(aq)} + 2e^− \rightarrow H_{2(g)}\;\;\; E°_{cathode}=0 V \label{20.4.5}\]
    • anode: \[Zn_{(s)} \rightarrow Zn^{2+}_{(aq)}+2e^−\;\;\; E°_{anode}=−0.76\; V \label{20.4.6}\]
    • overall: \[Zn_{(s)}+2H^+_{(aq)} \rightarrow Zn^{2+}_{(aq)}+H_{2(g)} \label{20.4.7}\]
    \[E°_{cell}=E°_{cathode}−E°_{anode}= 0 \,V − (−0.76\, V) = 0.76\; V\]

    Although the reaction at the anode is an oxidation, by convention its tabulated E° value is reported as a reduction potential. In this example, the standard reduction potential for Zn2+(aq) + 2e → Zn(s) is −0.76 V, which means that the standard electrode potential for the reaction that occurs at the anode, the oxidation of Zn to Zn2+, often called the Zn/Zn2+ redox couple, or the Zn/Zn2+ couple, is −(−0.76 V) = 0.76 V.

    To measure the potential of the Cu/Cu2+ couple, we can construct a galvanic cell analogous to the one shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\) but containing a Cu/Cu2+ couple in the sample compartment instead of Zn/Zn2+. When we close the circuit this time, the measured potential for the cell is negative (−0.34 V) rather than positive. The negative value of \(E°_{cell}\) indicates that the direction of spontaneous electron flow is the opposite of that for the Zn/Zn2+ couple. Hence the reactions that occur spontaneously, indicated by a positive \(E°_{cell}\), are the reduction of Cu2+ to Cu at the copper electrode. The copper electrode gains mass as the reaction proceeds, and H2 is oxidized to H+ at the platinum electrode. In this cell, the copper strip is the cathode, and the hydrogen electrode is the anode. The cell diagram therefore is written with the SHE on the left and the Cu2+/Cu couple on the right:

    \[Pt_{(s)}∣H_2(g, 1 atm)∣H^+(aq, 1\; M)∥Cu^{2+}(aq, 1 M)∣Cu_{(s)} \label{20.4.8}\]

    The half-cell reactions and potentials of the spontaneous reaction are as follows:

    • Cathode: \[Cu^{2+}{(aq)} + 2e^− \rightarrow Cu_{(g)}\;\;\; E°_{cathode} = 0.34\; V \label{20.4.9}\]
    • Anode: \[H_{2(g)} \rightarrow 2H^+_{(aq)} + 2e^−\;\;\; E°_{anode} = 0\; V \label{20.4.10}\]
    • Overall: \[H_{2(g)} + Cu^{2+}_{(aq)} \rightarrow 2H^+_{(aq)} + Cu_{(s)} \label{20.4.11}\]
    \[E°_{cell} = E°_{cathode}− E°_{anode} = 0.34\; V\]

    Thus the standard electrode potential for the Cu2+/Cu couple is 0.34 V.

    Standard Cell Potentials and Reaction Spontaneity

    We can now use our two standard electrode potentials to calculate the standard potential for the Zn/Cu cell represented by the following cell diagram:

    \[ Zn{(s)}∣Zn^{2+}(aq, 1 M)∥Cu^{2+}(aq, 1 M)∣Cu_{(s)} \label{20.4.32}\]

    We know the values of E°anode for the reduction of Zn2+ and E°cathode for the reduction of Cu2+, so we can calculate \(E°_{cell}\):

    • cathode: \[Cu^{2+}_{(aq)} + 2e^− \rightarrow Cu_{(s)} \;\;\; E°_{cathode} = 0.34\; V \label{20.4.33}\]
    • anode: \[Zn_{(s)} \rightarrow Zn^{2+}(aq, 1 M) + 2e^−\;\;\; E°_{anode} = −0.76\; V \label{20.4.34}\]
    • overall: \[Zn_{(s)} + Cu^{2+}_{(aq)} \rightarrow Zn^{2+}_{(aq)} + Cu_{(s)} \label{20.4.35}\]

    \[E°_{cell} = E°_{cathode} − E°_{anode} = 1.10\; V\]

    This is the same value that is observed experimentally.

    Because electrical potential is the energy needed to move a charged particle in an electric field, standard electrode potentials for half-reactions are intensive properties and do not depend on the amount of substance involved. Consequently, E° values are independent of the stoichiometric coefficients for the half-reaction, and, most important, the coefficients used to produce a balanced overall reaction do not affect the value of the cell potential.

    E° values do NOT depend on the stoichiometric coefficients for a half-reaction.

    The standard cell potential for a redox reaction (E°cell) is a measure of the tendency of reactants in their standard states to form products in their standard states; consequently, it is a measure of the driving force for the reaction, which earlier we called voltage. If the value of \(E°_{cell}\) is positive, the reaction will occur spontaneously as written. If the value of \(E°_{cell}\) is negative, then the reaction is not spontaneous, and it will not occur as written under standard conditions; it will, however, proceed spontaneously in the opposite direction. (As we shall see, this does not mean that the reaction cannot be made to occur at all under standard conditions. With a sufficient input of electrical energy, virtually any reaction can be forced to occur.) Example \(\PageIndex{2}\) and its corresponding exercise illustrate how we can use measured cell potentials to calculate standard potentials for redox couples.

    A positive \(E°_{cell}\) means that the reaction will occur spontaneously as written. A negative \(E°_{cell}\) means that the reaction will proceed spontaneously in the opposite direction.

    Example \(\PageIndex{1}\)

    A galvanic cell with a measured standard cell potential of 0.27 V is constructed using two beakers connected by a salt bridge. One beaker contains a strip of gallium metal immersed in a 1 M solution of GaCl3, and the other contains a piece of nickel immersed in a 1 M solution of NiCl2. The half-reactions that occur when the compartments are connected are as follows:

    cathode: Ni2+(aq) + 2e → Ni(s)

    anode: Ga(s) → Ga3+(aq) + 3e

    If the potential for the oxidation of Ga to Ga3+ is 0.55 V under standard conditions, what is the potential for the oxidation of Ni to Ni2+?

    Given: galvanic cell, half-reactions, standard cell potential, and potential for the oxidation half-reaction under standard conditions

    Asked for: standard electrode potential of reaction occurring at the cathode

    Strategy:

    1. Write the equation for the half-reaction that occurs at the anode along with the value of the standard electrode potential for the half-reaction.
    2. Use Equation \(\ref{20.4.2}\) to calculate the standard electrode potential for the half-reaction that occurs at the cathode. Then reverse the sign to obtain the potential for the corresponding oxidation half-reaction under standard conditions.

    Solution:

    A We have been given the potential for the oxidation of Ga to Ga3+ under standard conditions, but to report the standard electrode potential, we must reverse the sign. For the reduction reaction Ga3+(aq) + 3e → Ga(s), E°anode = −0.55 V.

    B Using the value given for \(E°_{cell}\) and the calculated value of E°anode, we can calculate the standard potential for the reduction of Ni2+ to Ni from Equation \(\ref{20.4.2}\):

    \[E°_{cell} = E°_{cathode} − E°_{anode} onumber\]
    0.27 V = E°cathode − (−0.55 V)
    cathode = −0.28 V

    This is the standard electrode potential for the reaction Ni2+(aq) + 2e → Ni(s). Because we are asked for the potential for the oxidation of Ni to Ni2+ under standard conditions, we must reverse the sign of E°cathode. Thus E° = −(−0.28 V) = 0.28 V for the oxidation. With three electrons consumed in the reduction and two produced in the oxidation, the overall reaction is not balanced. Recall, however, that standard potentials are independent of stoichiometry.

    Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\)

    A galvanic cell is constructed with one compartment that contains a mercury electrode immersed in a 1 M aqueous solution of mercuric acetate \(Hg(CH_3CO_2)_2\) and one compartment that contains a strip of magnesium immersed in a 1 M aqueous solution of \(MgCl_2\). When the compartments are connected, a potential of 3.22 V is measured and the following half-reactions occur:

    • cathode: Hg2+(aq) + 2e → Hg(l)
    • anode: Mg(s) → Mg2+(aq) + 2e

    If the potential for the oxidation of Mg to Mg2+ is 2.37 V under standard conditions, what is the standard electrode potential for the reaction that occurs at the anode?

    Answer

    0.85 V

    Other Reference Electrodes 

    When using a galvanic cell to measure the concentration of a substance, we are generally interested in the potential of only one of the electrodes of the cell, the so-called indicator electrode, whose potential is related to the concentration of the substance being measured. To ensure that any change in the measured potential of the cell is due to only the substance being analyzed, the potential of the other electrode, the reference electrode, must be constant. The potential of a reference electrode must be unaffected by the properties of the solution, and if possible, it should be physically isolated from the solution of interest. To measure the potential of a solution, we select a reference electrode and an appropriate indicator electrode. Whether reduction or oxidation of the substance being analyzed occurs depends on the potential of the half-reaction for the substance of interest (the sample) and the potential of the reference electrode.

    You are already familiar with one example of a reference electrode: the SHE. However, there are many possible choices of reference electrode other than the SHE. The SHE requires a constant flow of highly flammable hydrogen gas, which makes it inconvenient to use. Consequently, two other electrodes are commonly chosen as reference electrodes. One is the silver–silver chloride electrode, which consists of a silver wire coated with a very thin layer of AgCl that is dipped into a chloride ion solution with a fixed concentration. The cell diagram and reduction half-reaction are as follows:

    \[Cl^−_{(aq)}∣AgCl_{(s)}∣Ag_{(s)} \label{20.4.36}\]

    \[AgCl_{(s)}+e^− \rightarrow Ag_{(s)} + Cl^−_{(aq)}\]

    If a saturated solution of KCl is used as the chloride solution, the potential of the silver–silver chloride electrode is 0.197 V versus the SHE. That is, 0.197 V must be subtracted from the measured value to obtain the standard electrode potential measured against the SHE.

    A second common reference electrode is the saturated calomel electrode (SCE), which has the same general form as the silver–silver chloride electrode. The SCE consists of a platinum wire inserted into a moist paste of liquid mercury (Hg2Cl2; called calomel in the old chemical literature) and KCl. This interior cell is surrounded by an aqueous KCl solution, which acts as a salt bridge between the interior cell and the exterior solution (part (a) in Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\). Although it sounds and looks complex, this cell is actually easy to prepare and maintain, and its potential is highly reproducible. The SCE cell diagram and corresponding half-reaction are as follows:

    \[Pt_{(s)} ∣ Hg_2Cl_{2(s)}∣KCl_{(aq, sat)} \label{20.4.37}\]

    \[Hg_2Cl_{2(s)} + 2e^− \rightarrow 2Hg_{(l)} + 2Cl^−{(aq)} \label{20.4.38}\]

    At 25°C, the potential of the SCE is 0.2415 V versus the SHE, which means that 0.2415 V must be subtracted from the potential versus an SCE to obtain the standard electrode potential.

    19.9.jpg
    Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\): Three Common Types of Electrodes. (a) The SCE is a reference electrode that consists of a platinum wire inserted into a moist paste of liquid mercury (calomel; Hg2Cl2) and KCl. The interior cell is surrounded by an aqueous KCl solution, which acts as a salt bridge between the interior cell and the exterior solution. (b) In a glass electrode, an internal Ag/AgCl electrode is immersed in a 1 M HCl solution that is separated from the sample solution by a very thin glass membrane. The potential of the electrode depends on the H+ ion concentration of the sample. (c) The potential of an ion-selective electrode depends on the concentration of only a single ionic species in solution.

     

    One of the most common uses of electrochemistry is to measure the H+ ion concentration of a solution. A glass electrode is generally used for this purpose, in which an internal Ag/AgCl electrode is immersed in a 0.10 M HCl solution that is separated from the solution by a very thin glass membrane (part (b) in Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\). The glass membrane absorbs protons, which affects the measured potential. The extent of the adsorption on the inner side is fixed because [H+] is fixed inside the electrode, but the adsorption of protons on the outer surface depends on the pH of the solution. The measured potential can be read out by a pH meter when the glass electrode is placed in a solution of unknown pH. 

    Ion-selective electrodes are used to measure the concentration of a particular species in solution; they are designed so that their potential depends on only the concentration of the desired species (part (c) in Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)). These electrodes usually contain an internal reference electrode that is connected by a solution of an electrolyte to a crystalline inorganic material or a membrane, which acts as the sensor. For example, one type of ion-selective electrode uses a single crystal of Eu-doped \(LaF_3\) as the inorganic material. When fluoride ions in solution diffuse to the surface of the solid, the potential of the electrode changes, resulting in a so-called fluoride electrode. Similar electrodes are used to measure the concentrations of other species in solution. Some of the species whose concentrations can be determined in aqueous solution using ion-selective electrodes and similar devices are listed in Table \(\PageIndex{1}\).

    Table \(\PageIndex{1}\): Some Species Whose Aqueous Concentrations Can Be Measured Using Electrochemical Methods
    Species Type of Sample
    H+ laboratory samples, blood, soil, and ground and surface water
    NH3/NH4+ wastewater and runoff water
    K+ blood, wine, and soil
    CO2/HCO3 blood and groundwater
    F groundwater, drinking water, and soil
    Br grains and plant extracts
    I milk and pharmaceuticals
    NO3 groundwater, drinking water, soil, and fertilizer

    Summary

    Redox reactions can be balanced using the half-reaction method. The standard cell potential is a measure of the driving force for the reaction. \(E°_{cell} = E°_{cathode} − E°_{anode} \] The flow of electrons in an electrochemical cell depends on the identity of the reacting substances, the difference in the potential energy of their valence electrons, and their concentrations. The potential of the cell under standard conditions (1 M for solutions, 1 atm for gases, pure solids or liquids for other substances) and at a fixed temperature (25°C) is called the standard cell potential (E°cell). Only the difference between the potentials of two electrodes can be measured. The potential of the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) is defined as 0 V under standard conditions. The potential of a half-reaction measured against the SHE under standard conditions is called its standard electrode potential. By convention, all tabulated values of standard electrode potentials are listed as standard reduction potentials. The overall cell potential is the reduction potential of the reductive half-reaction minus the reduction potential of the oxidative half-reaction (E°cell = E°cathode − E°anode). The standard cell potential is a measure of the driving force for a given redox reaction. If \(E°_{cell}\) is positive, the reaction will occur spontaneously under standard conditions. If \(E°_{cell}\) is negative, then the reaction is not spontaneous under standard conditions, although it will proceed spontaneously in the opposite direction. 


    10.3: Electrochemical Potential is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.