# 5.3: Determining the Sensitivity

To standardize an analytical method we also must determine the value of kA in equation 5.1 or equation 5.2.

$S_\textrm{total}=k_\textrm An_\textrm A+S_\textrm{reag}\tag{5.1}$

$S_\textrm{total}=k_\textrm AC_\textrm A+S_\textrm{reag}\tag{5.2}$

In principle, it should be possible to derive the value of kA for any analytical method by considering the chemical and physical processes generating the signal. Unfortunately, such calculations are not feasible when we lack a sufficiently developed theoretical model of the physical processes, or are not useful because of nonideal chemical behavior. In such situations we must determine the value of kA by analyzing one or more standard solutions, each containing a known amount of analyte. In this section we consider several approaches for determining the value of kA. For simplicity we will assume that Sreag has been accounted for by a proper reagent blank, allowing us to replace Stotal in equation 5.1 and equation 5.2 with the analyte’s signal, SA.

$S_\textrm A=k_\textrm An_\textrm A\tag{5.3}$

$S_\textrm A=k_\textrm AC_\textrm A\tag{5.4}$

Equation 5.3 and equation 5.4 are essentially identical, differing only in whether we choose to express the amount of analyte in moles or as a concentration. For the remainder of this chapter we will limit our treatment to equation 5.4. You can extend this treatment to equation 5.3 by replacing CA with nA.

#### 5.3.1 Single-Point versus Multiple-Point Standardizations

The simplest way to determine the value of kA in equation 5.4 is by a single-point standardization in which we measure the signal for a standard, Sstd, containing a known concentration of analyte, Cstd. Substituting these values into equation 5.4

$k_\textrm A=\dfrac{S_\textrm{std}}{C_\textrm{std}}\tag{5.5}$

gives the value for kA. Having determined the value for kA, we can calculate the concentration of analyte in any sample by measuring its signal, Ssamp, and calculating CA using equation 5.6.

$C_\textrm A=\dfrac{S_{\textrm{samp}}}{k_{\textrm{A}}}\tag{5.6}$

A single-point standardization is the least desirable method for standardizing a method. There are at least two reasons for this. First, any error in our determination of kA carries over into our calculation of CA. Second, our experimental value for kA is for a single concentration of analyte. Extending this value of kA to other concentrations of analyte requires us to assume a linear relationship between the signal and the analyte’s concentration, an assumption that often is not true.5 Figure 5.2 shows how assuming a constant value of kA may lead to a determinate error in the analyte’s concentration. Despite these limitations, single-point standardizations find routine use when the expected range for the analyte’s concentrations is small. Under these conditions it is often safe to assume that kA is constant (although you should verify this assumption experimentally). This is the case, for example, in clinical labs where many automated analyzers use only a single standard.

Figure 5.2 Example showing how a single-point standardization leads to a determinate error in an analyte’s reported concentration if we incorrectly assume that the value of kA is constant.

The preferred approach to standardizing a method is to prepare a series of standards, each containing the analyte at a different concentration. Standards are chosen such that they bracket the expected range for the analyte’s concentration. A multiple-point standardization should include at least three standards, although more are preferable. A plot of Sstdversus Cstdis known as a calibration curve. The exact standardization, or calibration relationship is determined by an appropriate curve-fitting algorithm.

Note

Linear regression, which also is known as the method of least squares, is one such algorithm. Its use is covered in Section 5D.

There are at least two advantages to a multiple-point standardization. First, although a determinate error in one standard introduces a determinate error into the analysis, its effect is minimized by the remaining standards. Second, by measuring the signal for several concentrations of analyte we no longer must assume that the value of kA is independent of the analyte’s concentration. Constructing a calibration curve similar to the “actual relationship” in Figure 5.2, is possible.

#### 5.3.2 External Standards

The most common method of standardization uses one or more external standards, each containing a known concentration of analyte. We call them “external” because we prepare and analyze the standards separate from the samples.

Note

Appending the adjective “external” to the noun “standard” might strike you as odd at this point, as it seems reasonable to assume that standards and samples must be analyzed separately. As you will soon learn, however, we can add standards to our samples and analyze them simultaneously.

##### Single External Standard

A quantitative determination using a single external standard was described at the beginning of this section, with kA given by equation 5.5. After determining the value of kA, the concentration of analyte, CA, is calculated using equation 5.6.

Example 5.1

A spectrophotometric method for the quantitative analysis of Pb2+ in blood yields an Sstd of 0.474 for a single standard whose concentration of lead is 1.75 ppb What is the concentration of Pb2+ in a sample of blood for which Ssamp is 0.361?

Solution

Equation 5.5 allows us to calculate the value of kA for this method using the data for the standard.

$k_\textrm A=\dfrac{S_\textrm{std}}{C_\textrm{std}}=\dfrac{0.474}{1.75\textrm{ ppb}}=0.2709\textrm{ ppb}^{-1}$

Having determined the value of kA, the concentration of Pb2+ in the sample of blood is calculated using equation 5.6.

$C_\textrm A=\dfrac{S_\textrm{samp}}{k_\textrm A}=\dfrac{0.361}{0.2709\textrm{ ppb}^{-1}}=1.33\textrm{ ppb}$

##### Multiple External Standards

Figure 5.3 shows a typical multiple-point external standardization. The volumetric flask on the left is a reagent blank and the remaining volumetric flasks contain increasing concentrations of Cu2+. Shown below the volumetric flasks is the resulting calibration curve. Because this is the most common method of standardization the resulting relationship is called a normal calibration curve.

Figure 5.3 Shown at the top is a reagent blank (far left) and a set of five external standards for Cu2+ with concentrations increasing from left to right. Shown below the external standards is the resulting normal calibration curve. The absorbance of each standard, Sstd, is shown by the filled circles.

When a calibration curve is a straight-line, as it is in Figure 5.3, the slope of the line gives the value of kA. This is the most desirable situation since the method’s sensitivity remains constant throughout the analyte’s concentration range. When the calibration curve is not a straight-line, the method’s sensitivity is a function of the analyte’s concentration. In Figure 5.2, for example, the value of kA is greatest when the analyte’s concentration is small and decreases continuously for higher concentrations of analyte. The value of kA at any point along the calibration curve in Figure 5.2 is given by the slope at that point. In either case, the calibration curve provides a means for relating Ssamp to the analyte’s concentration.

Example 5.2

A second spectrophotometric method for the quantitative analysis of Pb2+ in blood has a normal calibration curve for which

$S_\textrm{std}=(0.296\textrm{ ppb}^{-1})\times C_\textrm{std}+0.003$

What is the concentration of Pb2+ in a sample of blood if Ssamp is 0.397?

Solution

To determine the concentration of Pb2+ in the sample of blood we replace Sstd in the calibration equation with Ssamp and solve for CA.

$C_\textrm A=\dfrac{S_\textrm{samp}-0.003}{0.296\textrm{ ppb}^{-1}}=\dfrac{0.397-0.003}{0.296\textrm{ ppb}^{-1}}=1.33\textrm{ ppb}$

It is worth noting that the calibration equation in this problem includes an extra term that does not appear in equation 5.6. Ideally we expect the calibration curve to have a signal of zero when CA is zero. This is the purpose of using a reagent blank to correct the measured signal. The extra term of +0.003 in our calibration equation results from the uncertainty in measuring the signal for the reagent blank and the standards.

Practice Exercise 5.1

Figure 5.3 shows a normal calibration curve for the quantitative analysis of Cu2+. The equation for the calibration curve is

$S_\textrm{std}=29.59\textrm{ M}^{-1}\times C_\textrm{std}+0.0015$

What is the concentration of Cu2+ in a sample whose absorbance, Ssamp, is 0.114? Compare your answer to a one-point standardization where a standard of 3.16 × 10–3 M Cu2+ gives a signal of 0.0931.

(The one-point standardization in this exercise uses data from the third volumetric flask in Figure 5.3.)

An external standardization allows us to analyze a series of samples using a single calibration curve. This is an important advantage when we have many samples to analyze. Not surprisingly, many of the most common quantitative analytical methods use an external standardization.

There is a serious limitation, however, to an external standardization. When we determine the value of kA using equation 5.5, the analyte is present in the external standard’s matrix, which usually is a much simpler matrix than that of our samples. When using an external standardization we assume that the matrix does not affect the value of kA. If this is not true, then we introduce a proportional determinate error into our analysis. This is not the case in Figure 5.4, for instance, where we show calibration curves for the analyte in the sample’s matrix and in the standard’s matrix. In this example, a calibration curve using external standards results in a negative determinate error. If we expect that matrix effects are important, then we try to match the standard’s matrix to that of the sample. This is known as matrix matching. If we are unsure of the sample’s matrix, then we must show that matrix effects are negligible, or use an alternative method of standardization. Both approaches are discussed in the following section.

Figure 5.4 Calibration curves for an analyte in the standard’s matrix and in the sample’s matrix. If the matrix affects the value of kA, as is the case here, then we introduce a determinate error into our analysis if we use a normal calibration curve.

Note

The matrix for the external standards in Figure 5.3, for example, is dilute ammonia, which is added because the Cu(NH3)42+ complex absorbs more strongly than Cu2+. If we fail to add the same amount of ammonia to our samples, then we will introduce a proportional determinate error into our analysis.

We can avoid the complication of matching the matrix of the standards to the matrix of the sample by conducting the standardization in the sample. This is known as the method of standard additions.

The simplest version of a standard addition is shown in Figure 5.5. First we add a portion of the sample, Vo, to a volumetric flask, dilute it to volume, Vf, and measure its signal, Ssamp. Next, we add a second identical portion of sample to an equivalent volumetric flask along with a spike, Vstd, of an external standard whose concentration is Cstd. After diluting the spiked sample to the same final volume, we measure its signal, Sspike. The following two equations relate Ssamp and Sspike to the concentration of analyte, CA, in the original sample.

Figure 5.5 Illustration showing the method of standard additions. The volumetric flask on the left contains a portion of the sample, Vo, and the volumetric flask on the right contains an identical portion of the sample and a spike, Vstd, of a standard solution of the analyte. Both flasks are diluted to the same final volume, Vf. The concentration of analyte in each flask is shown at the bottom of the figure where CA is the analyte’s concentration in the original sample and Cstd is the concentration of analyte in the external standard.

$S_\textrm{samp}=k_\textrm AC_\textrm A\dfrac{V_\textrm o}{V_\textrm f}\tag{5.7}$

$S_\textrm{spike}=k_\textrm A\left(C_\textrm A\dfrac{V_\textrm o}{V_\textrm f}+C_\textrm{std}\dfrac{V_\textrm{std}}{V_\textrm f}\right)\tag{5.8}$

Note

The ratios Vo/Vf and Vstd/Vf account for the dilution of the sample and the standard, respectively.

As long as Vstd is small relative to Vo, the effect of the standard’s matrix on the sample’s matrix is insignificant. Under these conditions the value of kA is the same in equation 5.7 and equation 5.8. Solving both equations for kA and equating gives

$\dfrac{S_\textrm{samp}}{C_\textrm A\dfrac{V_\textrm o}{V_\textrm f}}=\dfrac{S_\textrm{spike}}{C_\textrm A\dfrac{V_\textrm o}{V_\textrm f}+C_\textrm{std}\dfrac{V_\textrm{std}}{V_\textrm f}}\tag{5.9}$

which we can solve for the concentration of analyte, CA, in the original sample.

Example 5.3

A third spectrophotometric method for the quantitative analysis of Pb2+ in blood yields an Ssamp of 0.193 when a 1.00 mL sample of blood is diluted to 5.00 mL. A second 1.00 mL sample of blood is spiked with 1.00 mL of a 1560-ppb Pb2+ external standard and diluted to 5.00 mL, yielding an Sspike of 0.419. What is the concentration of Pb2+ in the original sample
of blood?

Solution

We begin by making appropriate substitutions into equation 5.9 and solving for CA. Note that all volumes must be in the same units; thus, we first covert Vstd from 1.00 mL to 1.00 × 10–3 mL.

$\dfrac{0.193}{C_\textrm A\mathrm{\dfrac{1.00\;mL}{5.00\;mL}}}=\dfrac{0.419}{C_\textrm A\mathrm{\dfrac{1.00\;mL}{5.00\;mL}+1560\;ppb\;\dfrac{1.00\times10^{-3}\;mL}{5.00\;mL}}}$

$\dfrac{0.193}{2.00C_\textrm A}=\dfrac{0.419}{200C_\textrm A+0.3120\textrm{ ppb}}$

$0.0386C_\textrm A+0.0602\textrm{ ppb}=0.0838C_\textrm A$

$0.0452C_\textrm A=0.0602\textrm{ ppb}$

$C_\textrm A=1.33\textrm{ ppb}$

The concentration of Pb2+ in the original sample of blood is 1.33 ppb.

It also is possible to make a standard addition directly to the sample, measuring the signal both before and after the spike (Figure 5.6). In this case the final volume after the standard addition is Vo + Vstd and equation 5.7, equation 5.8, and equation 5.9 become

$S_\textrm{samp}=k_\textrm AC_\textrm A$

$S_\textrm{spike}=k_\textrm A\left(C_\textrm A\dfrac{V_\textrm o}{V_\textrm o+V_\textrm{std}}+C_\textrm{std}\dfrac{V_\textrm{std}}{V_\textrm o+V_\textrm{std}}\right)\tag{5.10}$

$\dfrac{S_\textrm{samp}}{C_\textrm A}=\dfrac{S_\textrm{spike}}{C_\textrm A\dfrac{V_\textrm o}{V_\textrm o+V_\textrm{std}}+C_\textrm{std}\dfrac{V_\textrm{std}}{V_\textrm o+V_\textrm{std}}}\tag{5.11}$

Figure 5.6 Illustration showing an alternative form of the method of standard additions. In this case we add a spike of the external standard directly to the sample without any further adjust in the volume.

Example 5.4

A fourth spectrophotometric method for the quantitative analysis of Pb2+ in blood yields an Ssamp of 0.712 for a 5.00 mL sample of blood. After spiking the blood sample with 5.00 mL of a 1560-ppb Pb2+ external standard, an Sspike of 1.546 is measured. What is the concentration of Pb2+ in the original sample of blood?

Solution

To determine the concentration of Pb2+ in the original sample of blood, we make appropriate substitutions into equation 5.11 and solve for CA.

$\mathrm{\dfrac{0.712}{\mathit{C}_{A}} = \dfrac{1.546}{\mathit{C}_A\:\dfrac{5.00\: mL}{5.005\: mL} + 1560\: ppb \:\dfrac{5.00×10^{-3}\: mL}{5.005\: mL}}}$

(Note: $$V_\textrm o+V_\textrm{std}=\mathrm{5.00\;mL+5.00\times10^{-3}\;mL=5.005\;mL}$$)

$\dfrac{0.712}{C_\textrm A}=\dfrac{1.546}{0.9990C_\textrm A+1.558\textrm{ ppb}}$

$0.7113C_\textrm A+1.109\textrm{ ppb}=1.546C_\textrm A$

$C_\textrm A=1.33\textrm{ ppb}$

The concentration of Pb2+ in the original sample of blood is 1.33 ppb.

We can adapt the single-point standard addition into a multiple-point standard addition by preparing a series of samples containing increasing amounts of the external standard. Figure 5.7 shows two ways to plot a standard addition calibration curve based on equation 5.8. In Figure 5.7a we plot Sspike against the volume of the spikes, Vstd. If kA is constant, then the calibration curve is a straight-line. It is easy to show that the x-intercept is equivalent to –CAVo/Cstd.

Figure 5.7 Shown at the top is a set of six standard additions for the determination of Mn2+. The flask on the left is a 25.00 mL sample diluted to 50.00 mL. The remaining flasks contain 25.00 mL of sample and, from left to right, 1.00, 2.00, 3.00, 4.00, and 5.00 mL of an external standard of 100.6 mg/L Mn2+. Shown below are two ways to plot the standard additions calibration curve. The absorbance for each standard addition, Sspike, is shown by the filled circles.

Example 5.5

Beginning with equation 5.8 show that the equations in Figure 5.7a for the slope, the y-intercept, and the x-intercept are correct.

Solution

We begin by rewriting equation 5.8 as

$S_\textrm{spike}=\dfrac{k_\textrm AC_\textrm AV_\textrm o}{V_\textrm f}+\dfrac{k_\textrm AC_\textrm{std}}{V_\textrm f}\times V_\textrm{std}$

which is in the form of the equation for a straight-line

$Y=y\textrm{-intercept + slope}\times X$

where Y is Sspike and X is Vstd. The slope of the line, therefore, is kACstd/Vf and the y-intercept is kACAVo/Vf. The x-intercept is the value of X when Y is zero, or

$0=\dfrac{k_\textrm AC_\textrm AV_\textrm o}{V_\textrm f}+\dfrac{k_\textrm AC_\textrm{std}}{V_\textrm f}\times x\textrm{-intercept}$

$x\textrm{-intercept}=-\dfrac{\dfrac{k_\textrm AC_\textrm AV_\textrm o}{V_\textrm f}}{\dfrac{k_\textrm AC_\textrm{std}}{V_\textrm f}}=-\dfrac{C_\textrm AV_\textrm o}{C_\textrm{std}}$

Practice Exercise 5.2

Beginning with equation 5.8 show that the equations in Figure 5.7b for the slope, the y-intercept, and the x-intercept are correct.

Because we know the volume of the original sample, Vo, and the concentration of the external standard, Cstd, we can calculate the analyte’s concentrations from the x-intercept of a multiple-point standard additions.

Example 5.6

A fifth spectrophotometric method for the quantitative analysis of Pb2+ in blood uses a multiple-point standard addition based on equation 5.8. The original blood sample has a volume of 1.00 mL and the standard used for spiking the sample has a concentration of 1560 ppb Pb2+. All samples were diluted to 5.00 mL before measuring the signal. A calibration curve of Sspike versus Vstd has the following equation

$S_\textrm{spike}=0.266+312\textrm{ mL}^{-1}\times V_\textrm{std}$

What is the concentration of Pb2+ in the original sample of blood.

Solution

To find the x-intercept we set Sspike equal to zero.

$0=0.266+312\textrm{ mL}^{-1}\times V_\textrm{std}$

Solving for Vstd, we obtain a value of –8.526 × 10–4 mL for the x-intercept. Substituting the x-interecpt’s value into the equation from Figure 5.7a

$-8.526\times10^{-4}\textrm{ mL}=-\dfrac{C_\textrm AV_\textrm o}{C_\textrm{std}}=-\dfrac{C_A\times1.00\textrm{ mL}}{1560\textrm{ ppb}}$

and solving for CA gives the concentration of Pb2+ in the blood sample as 1.33 ppb.

Practice Exercise 5.3

Figure 5.7 shows a standard additions calibration curve for the quantitative analysis of Mn2+. Each solution contains 25.00 mL of the original sample and either 0, 1.00, 2.00, 3.00, 4.00, or 5.00 mL of a 100.6 mg/L external standard of Mn2+. All standard addition samples were diluted to 50.00 mL before reading the absorbance. The equation for the calibration curve in Figure 5.7a is

$S_\textrm{std}=0.0854\times V_\textrm{std}+0.1478$

What is the concentration of Mn2+ in this sample? Compare your answer to the data in Figure 5.7b, for which the calibration curve is

$S_\textrm{std}=0.0425\times C_\textrm{std}(V_\textrm{std}/V_\textrm f) + 0.1478$

Since we construct a standard additions calibration curve in the sample, we can not use the calibration equation for other samples. Each sample, therefore, requires its own standard additions calibration curve. This is a serious drawback if you have many samples. For example, suppose you need to analyze 10 samples using a three-point calibration curve. For a normal calibration curve you need to analyze only 13 solutions (three standards and ten samples). If you use the method of standard additions, however, you must analyze 30 solutions (each of the ten samples must be analyzed three times, once before spiking and after each of two spikes).

##### Using a Standard Addition to Identify Matrix Effects

We can use the method of standard additions to validate an external standardization when matrix matching is not feasible. First, we prepare a normal calibration curve of Sstd versus Cstd and determine the value of kA from its slope. Next, we prepare a standard additions calibration curve using equation 5.8, plotting the data as shown in Figure 5.7b. The slope of this standard additions calibration curve provides an independent determination of kA. If there is no significant difference between the two values of kA, then we can ignore the difference between the sample’s matrix and that of the external standards. When the values of kA are significantly different, then using a normal calibration curve introduces a proportional determinate error.

#### 5.3.4 Internal Standards

To successfully use an external standardization or the method of standard additions, we must be able to treat identically all samples and standards. When this is not possible, the accuracy and precision of our standardization may suffer. For example, if our analyte is in a volatile solvent, then its concentration increases when we lose solvent to evaporation. Suppose we have a sample and a standard with identical concentrations of analyte and identical signals. If both experience the same proportional loss of solvent then their respective concentrations of analyte and signals continue to be identical. In effect, we can ignore evaporation if the samples and standards experience an equivalent loss of solvent. If an identical standard and sample lose different amounts of solvent, however, then their respective concentrations and signals will no longer be equal. In this case a simple external standardization or standard addition is not possible.

We can still complete a standardization if we reference the analyte’s signal to a signal from another species that we add to all samples and standards. The species, which we call an internal standard, must be different than the analyte.

Because the analyte and the internal standard in any sample or standard receive the same treatment, the ratio of their signals is unaffected by any lack of reproducibility in the procedure. If a solution contains an analyte of concentration CA, and an internal standard of concentration, CIS, then the signals due to the analyte, SA, and the internal standard, SIS, are

$S_\textrm A=k_\textrm AC_\textrm A$

$S_\textrm{IS}=k_\textrm{IS}C_\textrm{IS}$

where kA and kIS are the sensitivities for the analyte and internal standard. Taking the ratio of the two signals gives the fundamental equation for an internal standardization.

$\dfrac{S_\textrm A}{S_\textrm{IS}}=\dfrac{k_\textrm AC_\textrm A}{k_\textrm{IS}C_\textrm{IS}}=K\times \dfrac{C_\textrm A}{C_\textrm{IS}}\tag{5.12}$

Because K is a ratio of the analyte’s sensitivity and the internal standard’s sensitivity, it is not necessary to independently determine values for either kA or kIS.

##### Single Internal Standard

In a single-point internal standardization, we prepare a single standard containing the analyte and the internal standard, and use it to determine the value of K in equation 5.12.

$K=\left(\dfrac{C_\textrm{IS}}{C_\textrm A}\right)_\textrm{std}\times\left(\dfrac{S_\textrm A}{S_\textrm{IS}}\right)_\textrm{std}\tag{5.13}$

Having standardized the method, the analyte’s concentration is given by

$C_\textrm A=\dfrac{C_\textrm{IS}}{K}\times\left(\dfrac{S_\textrm A}{S_\textrm{IS}}\right)_\textrm{amp}$

Example 5.7

A sixth spectrophotometric method for the quantitative analysis of Pb2+ in blood uses Cu2+ as an internal standard. A standard containing 1.75 ppb Pb2+ and 2.25 ppb Cu2+ yields a ratio of (SA/SIS)std of 2.37. A sample of blood is spiked with the same concentration of Cu2+, giving a signal ratio, (SA/SIS)samp, of 1.80. Determine the concentration of Pb2+ in the sample of blood.

Solution

Equation 5.13 allows us to calculate the value of K using the data for the standard

$K=\left(\dfrac{C_\textrm{IS}}{C_\textrm A}\right)_\textrm{std}\times\left(\dfrac{S_\textrm A}{S_\textrm{IS}}\right)_\textrm{std}=\mathrm{\dfrac{2.25\;ppb\;Cu}{1.75\;ppb\;Pb^{2+}}\times2.37=3.05\dfrac{ppb\;Cu^{2+}}{ppb\;Pb^{2+}}}$

The concentration of Pb2+, therefore, is

$C_\textrm A=\dfrac{C_\textrm{IS}}{K}\times\left(\dfrac{S_\textrm A}{S_\textrm{IS}}\right)_\textrm{samp}=\mathrm{\dfrac{2.25\;ppb\;Cu^{2+}}{3.05\dfrac{ppb\;Cu^{2+}}{ppb\;Pb^{2+}}}\times1.80=1.33\;ppb\;Cu^{2+}}$

##### Multiple Internal Standards

A single-point internal standardization has the same limitations as a single-point normal calibration. To construct an internal standard calibration curve we prepare a series of standards, each containing the same concentration of internal standard and a different concentrations of analyte. Under these conditions a calibration curve of (SA/SIS)std versus CA is linear with a slope of K/CIS.

Note

Although the usual practice is to prepare the standards so that each contains an identical amount of the internal standard, this is not a requirement.

Example 5.8

A seventh spectrophotometric method for the quantitative analysis of Pb2+ in blood gives a linear internal standards calibration curve for which

$\left(\dfrac{S_\textrm A}{S_\textrm{IS}}\right)_\textrm{std}=(2.11\textrm{ ppb}^{-1})\times C_\textrm A-0.006$

What is the ppb Pb2+ in a sample of blood if (SA/SIS)samp is 2.80?

Solution

To determine the concentration of Pb2+ in the sample of blood we replace (SA/SIS)std in the calibration equation with (SA/SIS)samp and solve for CA.

$C_\textrm A=\dfrac{\left(\dfrac{S_\textrm A}{S_\textrm{IS}}\right)_\textrm{samp}+0.006}{2.11\textrm{ ppb}^{-1}}=\dfrac{2.80+0.006}{2.11\textrm{ ppb}^{-1}}=1.33\textrm{ ppb}$

The concentration of Pb2+ in the sample of blood is 1.33 ppb.

In some circumstances it is not possible to prepare the standards so that each contains the same concentration of internal standard. This is the case, for example, when preparing samples by mass instead of volume. We can still prepare a calibration curve, however, by plotting (SA/SIS)std versus CA/CIS, giving a linear calibration curve with a slope of K.