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1.9: In-Text References

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    1. Scale of the universe: http://htwins.net/scale2/ ↵
    2. http://www.iep.utm.edu/t/thales.htm ↵
    3. Of course if you know your movies, you know that the “Fifth Element” is love. ↵
    4. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/democritus/ ↵
    5. First description of Brownian motion - Epicurus ↵
    6. A History of Greek Philosophy by William Keith Chambers Guthrie. p. 212. ↵
    7. http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webproject...b/history.html and http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistry_(etymology) ↵
    8. An important event was the rediscovery by Poggio of Lucretius’s “On the Nature of Things,” a poem centered on the atomic nature of the universe (see The Swerve by Stephen Greenblatt). One reason Giordano Bruno was burnt at the stake was the fact that he took these ideas seriously. ↵
    9. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/elem/p.html ↵
    10. The Philosopher’s stone was thought to be able to turn base (common) metals into gold, and perhaps even be the key to everlasting life. It was the ultimate goal of the alchemists. Interestingly the first Harry Potter book was titled Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone in England but was re-titled in America, because the publishers thought that American children would not be interested in a book with this title, perhaps due a failure to appreciate the importance of philosophy. ↵
    11. Religious dissenters, that is, non-Anglicans, were not allowed access to English universities at that time. ↵
    12. An extraordinary number of discoveries related to the structure of the atom were made by scientists in or from Manchester. There must be something in the air there. It is, of course, completely fortuitous that one of the authors was also born and bred in Manchester! ↵
    13. https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of...le_proportions ↵
    14. That is, a person from Manchester, England. ↵
    15. This works because the electrons are spinning. ↵
    16. http://www.aip.org/history/electron/jjsound.htm ↵
    17. A term made popular (although often misunderstood) by T. S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 1st. ed., Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 1962 ↵
    18. This can be a little confusing to those not familiar with plum pudding – a “delicious” English delicacy composed of dried fruit (raisins) in a spongy base, usually prepared by boiling for several days and often served with rum sauce. ↵
    19. Yes we did tell you to think of electrons as a cloud - because this is a helpful model - but electrons are both particles and “clouds” as we will discuss later, in fact in some instances they appear to be quite close to perfect spheres in shape, In fact “The experiment, which spanned more than a decade, suggests that the electron differs from being perfectly round by less than \(0.000000000000000000000000001\) cm. This means that if the electron was magnified to the size of the solar system, it would still appear spherical to within the width of a human hair. (Hudson et al "Improved measurement of the shape of the electron" DOI: 10.1038/nature10104). ↵
    20. See http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p_o4aY7xkXg for an excellent explanation of this phenomenon. ↵
    21. That said, we recommend the discription given in Einstein and Infeld’s Evolution of Physics: https://archive.org/details/evolutionofphysi033254mbp ↵
    22. The trouble with chemical energy: why understanding bond energies requires an interdisciplinary systems approach. CBE Life Sci. Education,12:306-12. ↵
    23. Magnetic, like electrical force can also be attractive or repulsive. Most of us have played with magnets and felt the force of attraction between a north and south pole of a set of magnets, which gets stronger as the magnets get closer together, and the repulsion between two north poles which also gets stronger as the magnets get closer together. ↵
    24. A point we have not considered is why the atoms or molecules stop moving toward each other, which will return to shortly. ↵
    25. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BksyMWSygnc ↵
    26. Remember speed is a directionless value, while velocity involves both speed and direction. ↵
    27. Imagine, as an analogy that the two atoms are balls rolling down opposite sides of a hill towards a valley, their potential energy falls as they move down - but their kinetic energy rises and they speed up. ↵
    28. To continue our analogy as the balls get to the bottom of the hill, they collide and bounce back - rolling back up the hill, until once again the force of gravity takes over and they start to roll back down. In an ideal (unreal) situation with no friction, this situation would simply continue, until some other factor is introduced. ↵
    29. It is these factors that made the report of cold fusion so strange and so exciting to physicists. The temperatures and pressures required for fusion are so high that they are extremely difficult to achieve under controlled conditions. The failure to reproduce the original cold fusion report reinforces our understanding of how atoms interact. That scientists around the world attempted to reproduce the original observation (and failed), illustrates the open-mindedness of the scientific community. The fact that badly controlled and irreproducible observations were published, illustrates how scientific effort and resources (that is, research funds) can be wasted by inadequate pre-publication review. But science, like all human activities, is imperfect. The price for open-mindedness may be be wasted time and effort, yet it remains critical to scientific process and progress. At the same time, once the replication efforts failed, it became a waste of time (or a delusional obsession) to pursue cold fusion. ↵
    30. According to Robert Parson, “At \(1\) atmosphere pressure, Helium does not melt at ANY temperature - it stays liquid down to absolute zero. (If you want to be picky, it is a liquid down to the lowest temperatures that anyone has ever achieved, which are orders of magnitude less than \(1 \mathrm{~K}\) (http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilution_refrigerator), and our best theories predict that it will remain a liquid no matter how low the temperature.) To get solid helium you have to increase the pressure to \(25\) atmospheres or above. This is one of the most dramatic consequences of zero-point energy: the intermolecular forces in He are so weak that it melts under its own zero point energy. (This leads to the peculiar consequence that Helium at zero Kelvin is a liquid with zero entropy.) ↵
    31. In fact this is known as the bond energy – the energy required to break the bond – which in the case of \(\mathrm{H}_{2}\) is \(432 \mathrm{~kJ} / \mathrm{mol}\). ↵

    This page titled 1.9: In-Text References is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Melanie M. Cooper & Michael W. Klymkowsky via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform.