14: Feeding the Anthrosphere- Utilizing Renewable and Biological Materials
- Page ID
- 285380
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\(\newcommand{\avec}{\mathbf a}\) \(\newcommand{\bvec}{\mathbf b}\) \(\newcommand{\cvec}{\mathbf c}\) \(\newcommand{\dvec}{\mathbf d}\) \(\newcommand{\dtil}{\widetilde{\mathbf d}}\) \(\newcommand{\evec}{\mathbf e}\) \(\newcommand{\fvec}{\mathbf f}\) \(\newcommand{\nvec}{\mathbf n}\) \(\newcommand{\pvec}{\mathbf p}\) \(\newcommand{\qvec}{\mathbf q}\) \(\newcommand{\svec}{\mathbf s}\) \(\newcommand{\tvec}{\mathbf t}\) \(\newcommand{\uvec}{\mathbf u}\) \(\newcommand{\vvec}{\mathbf v}\) \(\newcommand{\wvec}{\mathbf w}\) \(\newcommand{\xvec}{\mathbf x}\) \(\newcommand{\yvec}{\mathbf y}\) \(\newcommand{\zvec}{\mathbf z}\) \(\newcommand{\rvec}{\mathbf r}\) \(\newcommand{\mvec}{\mathbf m}\) \(\newcommand{\zerovec}{\mathbf 0}\) \(\newcommand{\onevec}{\mathbf 1}\) \(\newcommand{\real}{\mathbb R}\) \(\newcommand{\twovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\ctwovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\threevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cthreevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\mattwo}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{rr}#1 \amp #2 \\ #3 \amp #4 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\laspan}[1]{\text{Span}\{#1\}}\) \(\newcommand{\bcal}{\cal B}\) \(\newcommand{\ccal}{\cal C}\) \(\newcommand{\scal}{\cal S}\) \(\newcommand{\wcal}{\cal W}\) \(\newcommand{\ecal}{\cal E}\) \(\newcommand{\coords}[2]{\left\{#1\right\}_{#2}}\) \(\newcommand{\gray}[1]{\color{gray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\lgray}[1]{\color{lightgray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\rank}{\operatorname{rank}}\) \(\newcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\col}{\text{Col}}\) \(\renewcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\nul}{\text{Nul}}\) \(\newcommand{\var}{\text{Var}}\) \(\newcommand{\corr}{\text{corr}}\) \(\newcommand{\len}[1]{\left|#1\right|}\) \(\newcommand{\bbar}{\overline{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bhat}{\widehat{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bperp}{\bvec^\perp}\) \(\newcommand{\xhat}{\widehat{\xvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\vhat}{\widehat{\vvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\uhat}{\widehat{\uvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\what}{\widehat{\wvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\Sighat}{\widehat{\Sigma}}\) \(\newcommand{\lt}{<}\) \(\newcommand{\gt}{>}\) \(\newcommand{\amp}{&}\) \(\definecolor{fillinmathshade}{gray}{0.9}\)"For approximately one century from the early 1900s to the early 2000s, petroleum-based feedstocks gave rise to a vast petrochemicals industry that resulted in the production of synthetic rubber, plastics, polymers with a variety of properties, pesticides and literally hundreds of other products, many of which replaced materials biosynthesized in nature, especially by plants. Now with diminishing petroleum supplies, a new generation of materials made from biomaterials such as the lignocellulose that composes plant structural matter is developing that will take the place of many of the petroleum-based chemicals. This massive shift to renewable feedstocks is leading to a new age of green chemistry.”
- 14.1: Feeding the Anthrosphere
- This page discusses the industrial revolution's impact on material demand, especially in the petrochemical sector, and highlights the unsustainability of petroleum sources. It advocates a shift back to biomaterials and emphasizes the importance of renewable feedstocks in sustainable chemistry. The evaluation of these feedstocks should consider their environmental impacts and processing needs, as they influence hazard levels throughout their life cycles.
- 14.2: Utilization of Feedstocks
- This page addresses the sustainable utilization of feedstocks in chemical processes for new material creation. It highlights ideal feedstocks as renewable and non-hazardous, focusing on three reaction types: addition (environmentally friendly, no byproducts), substitution (creates byproducts), and elimination (may produce waste). Emphasis is placed on waste minimization and byproduct reclamation to lessen environmental impact.
- 14.3: Biological Feedstocks
- This page discusses the historical significance of organisms in providing materials like wood and food for humans, highlighting biomass as a potential petroleum substitute in the organic chemicals industry. It outlines major biomass categories, such as carbohydrates and proteins, and addresses the complexities of extracting these materials. Various methods, including physical and chemical processes, are used to obtain valuable oils and compounds from biomass.
- 14.4: Biological Sources of Chemicals
- This page explores two main biological sources for producing specialty and commodity chemicals: plants and microorganisms. It emphasizes fermentation, where bacteria and yeasts convert nutrients into useful products like ethanol and lactic acid, crucial for food and antibiotics. The selection of microorganisms and controlled conditions is vital.
- 14.5: Biorefineries and Biomass Utilization
- This page discusses biorefineries that convert biological materials into organic chemicals and fuels using techniques such as extraction, microbial action, hydrogenation, pyrolysis, and gasification. Extraction can utilize solvents or supercritical carbon dioxide, while microbial processes convert biomass into sugars for fermentation. Hydrogenation creates organic compounds with elemental hydrogen, pyrolysis produces gases and liquids through heating, and gasification generates synthesis gas.
- 14.6: Monosaccharide Feedstocks - Glucose, Fructose, and Xylose
- This page discusses the importance of monosaccharides, particularly glucose and fructose, as starting materials for organic synthesis in biosynthesis and fermentation. Glucose, widely metabolized across organisms, can be sourced from various sugars and is crucial for producing organic acids and amino acids.
- 14.7: Cellulose
- This page discusses cellulose, a vital structural component in plants formed from glucose, highlighting its abundant production and challenges in extraction for paper and other uses, including environmental concerns from traditional chemical processes. It mentions various derivatives like microcrystalline cellulose and cellulose nitrate, noting their applications and associated risks. The summary touches on the potential for greener processing methods to address these issues in the future.
- 14.8: Feedstocks from Cellulose Wastes
- This page discusses the conversion of cellulose-rich biomass from crop production into valuable chemical feedstocks through enzyme systems or fermentation with rumen bacteria. The process involves breaking down cellulose into glucose or short-chain organic acids, which can be transformed into alcohols or ketones. This highlights the potential for utilizing agricultural waste materials for organic synthesis.
- 14.9: Lignin
- This page discusses lignin, a biopolymer second in abundance to cellulose, often viewed as waste due to its complex structure and resistance to biodegradation. While typically burned for fuel, its potential lies in biorefineries for applications like binders and structural materials. The most promising use is in producing aromatic compounds for chemical synthesis, which necessitates methods that preserve aromatic segments while degrading the molecule effectively.
- 14.10: Direct Biosynthesis of Polymers
- This page discusses the significance of biodegradable polymers, highlighting cellulose from wood and cotton, as well as protein polymers from wool and silk. It notes efforts to synthesize biodegradable synthetic polymers, particularly from lactic acid, and mentions the rising interest in poly(hydroxyalkanoate) compounds, which are biodegradable and thermoplastic but costly.
- 14.11: Bioconversion Processes for Synthetic Chemicals
- This page highlights the benefits of biocatalyzed processes over traditional chemical methods for producing compounds like p-hydroxybenzoic acid and 5-cyanovaleramide. It notes that biocatalysis, using enzymes under mild conditions, minimizes waste and enhances selectivity.
- 14.12: Bamboo - Ancient Material for the Future
- This page discusses bamboo, a fast-growing woody grass with 1,250 species, valued in Asia for its strength akin to steel, making it a substitute for cotton. It grows through rhizomes, increasing biomass by 10-30% yearly, often yielding more wood than some trees. Bamboo's sustainability potential is highlighted by its rapid growth cycle, making it suitable for renewable biomass and erosion control, particularly in deforested regions like Haiti.
- Literature Cited
- This page provides a summary of two key publications on chemicals from biomass and biocatalytic production. The first is a report by Werpy and Petersen from 2004, detailing valuable chemicals derived from biomass, with a follow-up volume on lignin released in 2007. The second is by Robert DiCosimo, published in 2000, which covers the biocatalytic production of 5 Cyanovaleramide from adiponitrile in a collection focused on green chemical syntheses.
- Questions and Problems
- This page reviews the pros and cons of biological feedstocks versus petroleum, emphasizing the oxidized nature of carbohydrates. It explores organic reaction reagents, green chemistry, feedstock structures like cellulose and lignin, fermentation efficiency, and historical coal usage. The text discusses biorefineries, environmental benefits of biopolymers, and enzymatic advantages in synthesis, along with notable chemical products resulting from these processes.